Chapter 3

The answer to question (vii) stretches from III.27 to XI.119. That to question (viii)

from XI. 120 up to the end of Ch. XIII.
2.

“Cittass’ ekaggatā” is rendered here as “unification of mind” in the sense of

agreement or harmony (cf. samagga) of consciousness and its concomitants in focusing
on a single object (see A I 70). It is sometimes rendered “one-pointedness” in that
sense, or in the sense of the focusing of a searchlight. It may be concluded that this
term is simply a synonym for samādhi and nothing more, firstly from its use in the
suttas, and secondly from the fact that it is given no separate definition in the description
of the formations aggregate in Ch. XIV. Cf. gloss at M-a I 124.

CHAPTER III

TAKING A MEDITATION SUBJECT

(Kammaṭṭhāna-gahaṇa-niddesa)

1. [84] Now, concentration is described under the heading of “consciousness” in
the phrase “develops consciousness and understanding” (I.1). It should be
developed by one who has taken his stand on virtue that has been purified by
means of the special qualities of fewness of wishes, etc., and perfected by observance
of the ascetic practices. But that concentration has been shown only very briefly
and so it is not even easy to understand, much less to develop. There is therefore
the following set of questions, the purpose of which is to show the method of its
development in detail:

(i)

What is concentration?

(ii)

In what sense is it concentration?

(iii)

What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate

cause?

(iv)

How many kinds of concentration are there?

(v)

What is its defilement?

(vi)

What is its cleansing?

(vii)

How should it be developed?

(viii)

What are the benefits of the development of concentration?1

2. Here are the answers:

(i) WHAT IS CONCENTRATION? Concentration is of many sorts and has various

aspects. An answer that attempted to cover it all would accomplish neither its
intention nor its purpose and would, besides, lead to distraction; so we shall confine
ourselves to the kind intended here, calling concentration profitable unification of
mind.2

PATH OF PURIFICATION

Part 2: Concentration (Samādhi)

3. (ii) IN WHAT SENSE IS IT CONCENTRATION? It is concentration (samādhi) in the sense
of concentrating (samādhāna). What is this concentrating? It is the centring (ādhāna)
of consciousness and consciousness-concomitants evenly (samaṃ) and rightly
(sammā) on a single object; placing, is what is meant. [85] So it is the state in virtue
of which consciousness and its concomitants remain evenly and rightly on a single
object, undistracted and unscattered, that should be understood as concentrating.

4. (iii) WHAT ARE ITS CHARACTERISTIC, FUNCTION, MANIFESTATION, AND PROXIMATE CAUSE?
Concentration has non-distraction as its characteristic.3 Its function is to eliminate
distraction. It is manifested as non-wavering. Because of the words, “Being blissful,
his mind becomes concentrated” (D I 73), its proximate cause is bliss.

5. (iv) HOW MANY KINDS OF CONCENTRATION ARE THERE?

(1) First of all it is of one kind with the characteristic of non-distraction. (2)

Then it is of two kinds as access and absorption;4 (3) likewise as mundane and
supramundane,5 (4) as with happiness and without happiness, and (5) as
accompanied by bliss and accompanied by equanimity.6 It is of three kinds (6) as
inferior, medium and superior; likewise (7) as with applied thought and sustained
thought, etc., (8) as accompanied by happiness, etc., and (9) as limited, exalted,
and measureless. It is of four kinds (10) as of difficult progress and sluggish

“The characteristic of non-distraction is the individual essence peculiar to

concentration. Hence no analysis of it is possible, which is why he said: ‘It is of one kind
with the characteristic of non-distraction’” (Vism-mhṭ 91).
4.

“Applied thought that occurs as though absorbing (appento) associated states in

the object is absorption (appanā). Accordingly it is described as ‘absorption, absorbing
(appanā vyappanā)’ (M III 73). Now since that is the most important, the usage of the
Commentaries is to call all exalted and unsurpassed jhāna states ‘absorption’ [as well
as the applied thought itself], and likewise to apply the term of common usage ‘access’
to the limited [i.e. sense-sphere] jhāna that heralds the arising of the former, just as the
term ‘village access,’ etc. is applied to the neighbourhood of a village” (Vism-mhṭ 91).
5.

“The round (vaṭṭa, see XVII.298) [including fine-material and immaterial heavens]

is called the world (loka) because of its crumbling (lujjana) and disintegrating (palujjana).
‘Mundane’ (lokiya) means connected with the world because of being included in it or
found there. ‘Supramundane’ (lokuttara) means beyond the world, excepted from it,
because of not being included in it [through being associated with Nibbāna]” (Vism-
mhṭ 91). See also “nine supramundane states. (VII.68, 74f.)”
6.

In loose usage pīti (happiness) and sukha (pleasure or bliss) are almost synonyms.

They become differentiated in the jhāna formulas (see IV.100), and then technically pīti,
as the active thrill of rapture, is classed under the formations aggregate and sukha under
the feeling aggregate. The valuable word “happiness” was chosen for pīti rather than
the possible alternatives of “joy” (needed for somanassa), “interest” (which is too flat),
“rapture” (which is overcharged), or “zest.” For sukha, while “pleasure” seemed to fit
admirably where ordinary pleasant feeling is intended, another, less crass, word seemed
necessary for the refined pleasant feeling of jhāna and the “bliss” of Nibbāna (which is
not feeling aggregate—see M I 400). “Ease” is sometimes used.

“Neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling is intended here by ‘equanimity’ (upekkhā, lit,

onlooking); for it ‘looks on’ (upekkhati) at the occurrence of [bodily] pleasure and pain
by maintaining the neutral (central) mode” (Vism-mhṭ 92).

CHAPTER III

Taking a Meditation Subject

direct-knowledge, etc.; likewise (11) as limited with limited object, etc., (12)
according to the factors of the four jhānas, (13) as partaking of diminution, etc.,
(14) as of the sense sphere, etc., and (15) as predominance, and so on. (16) It is of
five kinds according to the factors of the five jhānas reckoned by the fivefold method.

6. 1. Herein, the section dealing with that of one kind is evident in meaning.

2. In the section dealing with that of two kinds, access concentration is the

unification of mind obtained by the following, that is to say, the six recollections,
mindfulness of death, the recollection of peace, the perception of repulsiveness in
nutriment, and the defining of the four elements, and it is the unification that
precedes absorption concentration. Absorption concentration is the unification that
follows immediately upon the preliminary-work (IV.74) because of the words, “The
first-jhāna preliminary-work is a condition, as proximity condition, for the first
jhāna” (Paṭṭh II 350 (Se). So it is of two kinds as access and absorption.

7. 3. In the second dyad mundane concentration is profitable unification of mind
in the three planes. Supramundane concentration is the unification associated with
the noble paths. So it is of two kinds as mundane and supramundane.

8. 4. In the third dyad concentration with happiness is the unification of mind in
two jhānas in the fourfold reckoning and in three jhānas in the fivefold reckoning.
[86] Concentration without happiness is the unification in the remaining two jhānas.
But access concentration may be with happiness or without happiness. So it is of
two kinds as with happiness and without happiness.

9. 5. In the fourth dyad concentration accompanied by bliss is the unification in
three jhānas in the fourfold and four in the fivefold reckoning. That accompanied by
equanimity is that in the remaining jhāna. Access concentration may be accompanied
by bliss or accompanied by equanimity. So it is of two kinds as accompanied by
bliss and accompanied by equanimity.

10.

6. In the first of the triads what has only just been acquired is inferior. What is

not very well developed is medium. What is well developed and has reached mastery
is superior. So it is of three kinds as inferior, medium, and superior.

11. 7. In the second triad that with applied thought and sustained thought is the
concentration of the first jhāna together with access concentration. That without
applied thought, with sustained thought only, is the concentration of the second jhāna
in the fivefold reckoning. For when a man sees danger only in applied thought
and not in sustained thought, he aspires only to abandon applied thought when
he passes beyond the first jhāna, and so he obtains concentration without applied
thought and with sustained thought only. This is said with reference to him.
Concentration without applied thought and sustained thought is the unification in the
three jhānas beginning with the second in the fourfold reckoning and with the
third in the fivefold reckoning (see D III 219). So it is of three kinds as with applied
thought and sustained thought, and so on.

12.

8. In the third triad concentration accompanied by happiness is the unification

in the two first jhānas in the fourfold reckoning and in the three first jhānas in the
fivefold reckoning. Concentration accompanied by bliss is the unification in those
same jhānas and in the third and the fourth respectively in the two reckonings.

PATH OF PURIFICATION

Part 2: Concentration (Samādhi)

That accompanied by equanimity is that in the remaining jhāna. Access concentration
may be accompanied by bliss and happiness or accompanied by equanimity. So it
is of three kinds as accompanied by happiness, and so on.

13. 9. In the fourth triad limited concentration is unification on the plane of access.
Exalted concentration is unification in profitable [consciousness, etc.,] of the fine-
material sphere and immaterial sphere. Measureless concentration is unification
associated with the noble paths. So it is of three kinds as limited, exalted, and
measureless.

14. 10. In the first of the tetrads there is concentration of difficult progress and
sluggish direct-knowledge. There is that of difficult progress and swift direct-
knowledge. There is that of easy progress and sluggish direct-knowledge. And
there is that of easy progress and swift direct-knowledge.

15. Herein, the development of concentration that occurs from the time of the
first conscious reaction up to the arising of the access of a given jhāna is called
progress. And the understanding that occurs from the time of access until absorption
is called direct-knowledge. That progress is difficult for some, being troublesome
owing to the tenacious resistance of the inimical states beginning with the
hindrances. The meaning is that it is cultivated without ease. [87] It is easy for
others because of the absence of those difficulties. Also the direct-knowledge is
sluggish in some and occurs slowly, not quickly. In others it is swift and occurs
rapidly, not slowly.

16. Herein, we shall comment below upon the suitable and unsuitable (IV.35f.), the
preparatory tasks consisting in the severing of impediments (IV.20), etc., and skill in
absorption (IV.42). When a man cultivates what is unsuitable, his progress is difficult
and his direct-knowledge sluggish. When he cultivates what is suitable, his progress is
easy and his direct-knowledge swift. But if he cultivates the unsuitable in the earlier
stage and the suitable in the later stage, or if he cultivates the suitable in the earlier
stage and the unsuitable in the later stage, then it should be understood as mixed in
his case. Likewise if he devotes himself to development without carrying out the
preparatory tasks of severing impediments, etc., his progress is difficult. It is easy in
the opposite case. And if he is not accomplished in skill in absorption, his direct-
knowledge is sluggish. It is swift if he is so accomplished.

17.

Besides, they should be understood as classed according to craving and

ignorance, and according to whether one has had practice in serenity and insight.7
For if a man is overwhelmed by craving, his progress is difficult. If not, it is easy.
And if he is overwhelmed by ignorance, his direct-knowledge is sluggish. If not, it
is swift. And if he has had no practice in serenity, his progress is difficult. If he has,
it is easy. And if he has had no practice in insight, his direct-knowledge is sluggish.
If he has, it is swift.

18. Also they should be understood as classed according to defilements and
faculties. For if a man’s defilements are sharp and his faculties dull, then his progress

Samatha—”serenity” is a synonym for absorption concentration, and “insight”

(vipassanā) a synonym for understanding. Samatha is sometimes rendered by
“tranquillity” (reserved here for passaddhi) or “calm” or “quiet.”

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Taking a Meditation Subject

is difficult and his direct-knowledge sluggish; but if his faculties are keen, his
direct-knowledge is swift. And if his defilements are blunt and his faculties dull,
then his progress is easy and his direct-knowledge sluggish; but if his faculties are
keen, his direct-knowledge is swift.

19. So as regards this progress and this direct-knowledge, when a person reaches
concentration with difficult progress and sluggish direct-knowledge, his
concentration is called concentration of difficult progress and sluggish direct-knowledge;
similarly in the cases of the remaining three.

So it is of four kinds as of difficult progress and sluggish direct-knowledge, and

so on.

20. 11. In the second tetrad there is limited concentration with a limited object,
there is limited concentration with a measureless object, there is measureless
concentration with a limited object, and there is measureless concentration with a
measureless object. Herein, concentration that is unfamiliar and incapable of being
a condition for a higher jhāna [88] is limited. When it occurs with an unextended
object (IV.126), it is with a limited object. When it is familiar, well developed, and
capable of being a condition for a higher jhāna, it is measureless. And when it occurs
with an extended object, it is with a measureless object. The mixed method can be
understood as the mixture of the characteristics already stated. So it is of four
kinds as limited with limited object, and so on.

21. 12. In the third tetrad the first jhāna has five factors, that is to say, applied
thought, sustained thought, happiness, bliss, and concentration, following
suppression of the hindrances. The second has the three factors remaining after
the elimination of applied and sustained thought. The third has two factors with
the fading away of happiness. The fourth, where bliss is abandoned, has two factors
with concentration and the equanimous feeling that accompanies it. Thus there
are four kinds of concentration according to the factors of these four jhānas. So it is
of four kinds according to the factors of the four jhānas.

22. 13. In the fourth tetrad there is concentration partaking of diminution, there
is concentration partaking of stagnation, there is concentration partaking of
distinction, and there is concentration partaking of penetration. Herein, it should
be understood that the state of partaking of diminution is accessibility to opposition,
the state of partaking of stagnation (ṭhiti) is stationariness (saṇṭhāna) of the
mindfulness that is in conformity with that [concentration], the state of partaking of
distinction is the attaining of higher distinction, and the state of partaking of
penetration is accessibility to perception and attention accompanied by dispassion,
according as it is said: “When a man has attained the first jhāna and he is accessible
to perception and attention accompanied by sense desire, then his understanding
partakes of diminution. When his mindfulness that is in conformity with that
stagnates, then his understanding partakes of stagnation. When he is accessible to
perception and attention unaccompanied by applied thought, then his
understanding partakes of distinction. When he is accessible to perception and
attention accompanied by dispassion and directed to fading away, then his
understanding partakes of penetration” (Vibh 330). The kinds of concentration

PATH OF PURIFICATION

Part 2: Concentration (Samādhi)

associated with that [fourfold] understanding are also four in number. So it is of
four kinds as partaking of diminution, and so on.

23. 14. In the fifth tetrad there are the following four kinds of concentration, that
is to say, sense-sphere concentration, fine-material-sphere concentration, immaterial-
sphere concentration, and unincluded [that is, path] concentration. Herein, sense-
sphere concentration is all kinds of access unification. Likewise the other three are
respectively profitable unification of mind associated with fine-material,
[immaterial, and path, jhāna]. So it is of four kinds as of the sense-sphere, and so
on.

24. 15. In the sixth tetrad: “If a bhikkhu obtains concentration, obtains unification
of mind, by making zeal (desire) predominant, [89] this is called concentration
due to zeal. If … by making energy predominant … If … by making [natural purity
of] consciousness predominant… If … by making inquiry predominant, this is
called concentration due to inquiry” (Vibh 216–19). So it is of four kinds as
predominance.

25. 16. In the pentad there are five jhānas by dividing in two what is called the
second jhāna in the fourfold reckoning (see §21), taking the second jhāna to be due
to the surmounting of only applied thought and the third jhāna to be due to the
surmounting of both applied and sustained thought. There are five kinds of
concentration according to the factors of these five jhānas. So its fivefoldness should
be understood according to the five sets of jhāna factors.

26. (v) What is its defilement? (vi) What is its cleansing? Here the answer is given
in the Vibhaṅga: “Defilement is the state partaking of diminution, cleansing is the
state partaking of distinction” (Vibh 343). Herein, the state partaking of diminution
should be understood in this way: “When a man has attained the first jhāna and he
is accessible to perception and attention accompanied by sense desire, then his
understanding partakes of diminution” (Vibh 330). And the state partaking of
distinction should be understood in this way: “When he is accessible to perception
and attention unaccompanied by applied thought, then his understanding partakes
of distinction” (Vibh 330).

27. (vii) How should it be developed?

[A. DEVELOPMENT IN BRIEF]

The method of developing the kind of concentration associated with the noble

paths mentioned (§7) under that “of two kinds as mundane and supramundane,”
etc., is included in the method of developing understanding; (Ch. XXII) for in
developing [path] understanding that is developed too. So we shall say nothing
separately [here] about how that is to be developed.

28. But mundane concentration should be developed by one who has taken his
stand on virtue that is quite purified in the way already stated. He should sever
any of the ten impediments that he may have. He should then approach the good
friend, the giver of a meditation subject, and he should apprehend from among
the forty meditation subjects one that suits his own temperament. After that he
should avoid a monastery unfavourable to the development of concentration and

CHAPTER III

Taking a Meditation Subject

One of the principal monasteries in Anurādhapura.

Dve mātikā—the “two codes”: see Ch. I, n. 11. But Vism-mhṭ says here: “‘Observers

of the codes’ are observers of the codes (summaries) of the Dhamma and
Vinaya” (Vism-mhṭ 117).
10. Pavāraṇa: ceremony held at the end of the rains, during three months of which
season bhikkhus have to undertake to live in one place in order to avoid travel while
crops are growing. It consists in a meeting of the bhikkhus who have spent the rains
together, at which each member present invites (pavāreti) the Community to point out
his faults (breaches of Vinaya rules) committed during the preceding three months
(Vin I 155).
11. “Pācinakhaṇḍarājā ti puratthimadisāya pabbatakhaṇḍānaṃ antare vanarājīṭṭhānaṃ”
(Vism-mhṭ 97).
12.

For the first five years after the admission (upasampadā) a bhikkhu is called a “new

(nava) bhikkhu”; from five to ten years he is called a “middle (majjhima) bhikkhu”;
with ten or more years’ seniority he is called an “elder (thera) bhikkhu.”

go to live in one that is favourable. Then he should sever the lesser impediments
and not overlook any of the directions for development. This is in brief.

[B. DEVELOPMENT IN DETAIL]

29. The detail is this:

[THE TEN IMPEDIMENTS]

Firstly it was said above, he should sever any of the ten impediments that he may

have. [90] Now, the “ten impediments” are:

A dwelling, family, and gain,
A class, and building too as fifth,
And travel, kin, affliction, books,
And supernormal powers: ten.

Herein, the dwelling itself is the “impediment due to the dwelling.” So too with

the family and so on.

30.

1. Herein, a single inner room or a single hut or a whole monastery for the

Community is called a dwelling. This is not an impediment for everyone. It is an
impediment only for anyone whose mind is exercised about the building, etc., that
goes on there, or who has many belongings stored there, or whose mind is caught
up by some business connected with it. For any other it is not an impediment.

31.

Here is a relevant story. Two clansmen left Anurādhapura, it seems, and

eventually went forth at the Thūpārāma.8 One of them made himself familiar with
the Two Codes,9 and when he had acquired five years’ seniority, he took part in the
Pavāraṇā10 and then left for the place called Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī.11 The other stayed
on where he was. Now, when the one who had gone to Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī had lived
there a long time and had become an elder,12 he thought, “This place is good for
retreat; suppose I told my friend about it?” So he set out, and in due course he
entered the Thūpārāma. As he entered, the elder of the same seniority saw him,
went to meet him, took his bowl and robe and did the duties.

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Part 2: Concentration (Samādhi)

32. The visiting elder went into his lodging. He thought, “Now my friend will be
sending me ghee or molasses or a drink; for he has lived long in this city.” He got
nothing that night, and in the morning he thought, “Now he will be sending me
rice gruel and solid food sent by his supporters.” When he saw none, he thought,
“There is no one to bring it. No doubt they will give it when we go into the town.”
Early in the morning they went into the town together. When they had wandered
through one street and had got only a ladleful of gruel, they sat down in a sitting
hall to drink it.13

33. Then the visitor thought, “Perhaps there is no individual giving of gruel. But
as soon as it is the time for the meal people will give special food.” But when it was
time for the meal, they ate what they had got by wandering for alms. Then the
visitor said, “Venerable sir, how is this? Do you live in this way all the time?”—
“Yes, friend.”—”Venerable sir, Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī is comfortable; let us go there.”
Now, as the elder came out from the city [91] by the southern gate he took the
Kumbhakāragāma road [which leads to Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī]. The visitor asked, “But,
venerable sir, why do you take this road?”—”Did you not recommend
Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī, friend?”—”But how is this, venerable sir, have you no extra
belongings in the place you have lived in for so long?”—”That is so, friend. The
bed and chair belong to the Community, and they are put away [as usual]. There is
nothing else.”—”But, venerable sir, I have left my staff and my oil tube and my
sandal bag there.”—”Have you already collected so much, friend, living there for
just one day?”—“Yes, venerable sir.”

34. He was glad in his heart, and he paid homage to the elder: “For those like
you, venerable sir, everywhere is a forest dwelling. The Thūpārāma is a place where
the relics of four Buddhas are deposited; there is suitable hearing of the Dhamma
in the Brazen Palace; there is the Great Shrine to be seen; and one can visit elders.
It is like the time of the Buddha. It is here that you should live.” On the following
day he took his bowl and [outer] robe and went away by himself. It is no impediment
for one like that.

35. 2 Family means a family consisting of relatives or of supporters. For even a
family consisting of supporters is an impediment for someone who lives in close
association with it in the way beginning, “He is pleased when they are pleased” (S
III 11), and who does not even go to a neighbouring monastery to hear the Dhamma
without members of the family.

36. But even mother and father are not an impediment for another, as in the case
of the young bhikkhu, the nephew of the elder who lived at the Koraṇḍaka
Monastery. He went to Rohaṇa for instruction, it seems. The elder’s sister, who was
a lay devotee, was always asking the elder how her son was getting on. One day
the elder set out for Rohaṇa to fetch him back.

37. The young bhikkhu too thought, “I have lived here for a long time. Now I
might go and visit my preceptor and find out how the lay devotee is,” and he left

13. The last sentence here might refer to a free mass distribution of gruel (yāgu), which
appears to have been more or less constantly maintained at Anurādhapura.

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Taking a Meditation Subject

Rohaṇa. The two met on the banks of the [Mahaveli] River. He did the duties to the
elder at the foot of a tree. When asked, “Where are you going?” he told him his
purpose. The elder said: “You have done well. The lay devotee is always asking
after you. That was why I came. You may go, but I shall stay here for the Rains,”
and he dismissed him. [92] He arrived at the monastery on the actual day for taking
up residence for the Rains. The lodging allotted to him happened to be the one for
which his father had undertaken responsibility.

38. His father came on the following day and asked, “To whom was our lodging
allotted, venerable sirs?” When he heard that it had fallen to a young visitor, he
went to him. After paying homage to him, he said, “Venerable sir, there is an
obligation for him who has taken up residence for the Rains in our lodging.”—
”What is it, lay follower?”—”It is to take alms food only in our house for the three
months, and to let us know the time of departure after the Pavāraṇā ceremony.”
He consented in silence. The lay devotee went home and told his wife. “There is a
visiting lord who has taken up residence for the Rains in our lodging. He must be
carefully looked after,” and she agreed. She prepared good food of various kinds
for him.14 Though the youth went to his relatives’ home at the time of the meal, no
one recognized him.

39.

When he had eaten alms food there during the three months and had

completed the residence for the Rains, he announced his departure. Then his
relatives said, “Let it be tomorrow, venerable sir,” and on the following day, when
they had fed him in their house and filled his oil tube and given him a lump of
sugar and a nine-cubit length of cloth, they said, “Now you are leaving, venerable
sir.” He gave his blessing and set out for Rohaṇa.

40. His preceptor had completed the Pavāraṇā ceremony and was on his way
back. They met at the same place as before. He did the duties to the elder at the
foot of a tree. The elder asked him, “How was it, my dear, did you see the good
woman lay devotee?” He replied, “Yes, venerable sir,” and he told him all that had
happened. He then anointed the elder’s feet with the oil, made him a drink with
the sugar, and presented him with the length of cloth. He then, after paying homage
to the elder, told him, “Venerable sir, only Rohaṇa suits me,” and he departed. The
elder too arrived back at his monastery, and next day he went into the village of
Koraṇḍaka.

41. The lay devotee, his sister, had always kept looking down the road, thinking,
“My brother is now coming with my son.” When she saw him coming alone, she
thought, “My son must be dead; that is why the elder is coming alone,” and she
fell at the elder’s feet, lamenting and weeping. Suspecting that it must have been
out of fewness of wishes that the youth had gone away without announcing himself,
[93] the elder comforted her and told her all that had happened, and he took the
length of cloth out of his bag and showed it to her.

14. It is usual to render the set phrase paṇītaṃ khādanīyaṃ bhojanīyaṃ by some such
phrase as “sumptuous food both hard and soft,” which is literal but unfamiliar-
sounding.

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Part 2: Concentration (Samādhi)

42. She was appeased. She prostrated herself in the direction taken by her son,
and she said: “Surely the Blessed One taught the way of the Rathavinīta, the way
of the Nālaka, the way of the Tuvaṭaka, and the way of the great Noble Ones’
heritages15 showing contentment with the four requisites and delight in
development, making a bhikkhu such as my son a body-witness. So, although for
three months he ate in the house of the mother who bore him, yet he never said ‘I
am your son, you are my mother!’ Oh, admirable man!” Even mother and father
are no impediment for one such as him, so how much less any other family that
supports him.

43.

3. Gain is the four requisites. How are they an impediment? Wherever a

meritorious bhikkhu goes, people give him a large supply of requisites. With giving
blessings to them and teaching them the Dhamma he gets no chance to do the
ascetic’s duties. From sunrise till the first watch of the night he never breaks his
association with people. Again, even at dawn, alms-food eaters fond of opulence
come and say, “Venerable sir, such and such a man lay follower, woman lay follower,
friend, friend’s daughter, wants to see you,” and being ready to go, he replies,
“Take the bowl and robe, friend.” So he is always on the alert. Thus these requisites
are an impediment for him. He should leave his group and wander by himself
where he is not known. This is the way his impediment is severed.

44. 4 Class is a class (group) of students of suttas or students of Abhidhamma. If
with the group’s instruction and questioning he gets no opportunity for the ascetic’s
duties, then that group is an impediment for him. He should sever that impediment
in this way: if those bhikkhus have already acquired the main part and little still
remains, he should finish that off and then go to the forest. If they have only acquired
little and much still remains, [94] he should, without travelling more than a league,
approach another instructor of a class within the radius of a league and say, “Help
those venerable ones with instruction, etc.” If he does not find anyone in this way,
he should take leave of the class, saying. “I have a task to see to, friends; go where
it suits you,” and he should do his own work.

45. 5. Building (kamma) is new building work (nava-kamma). Since one engaged
in this must know about what [material] has and has not been got by carpenters,
etc., and must see about what has and has not been done, it is always an impediment.
It should be severed in this way. If little remains it should be completed. If much
remains, it should be handed over to the Community or to bhikkhus who are
entrusted with the Community’s affairs, if it is a new building for the Community;
or if it is for himself, it should be handed over to those whom he entrusts with his
own affairs, but if these are not available, he should relinquish it to the Community
and depart.

15. “The way of the Rathavinīta (Rathavinīta-paṭipadā)”: this is a reference to certain
suttas that were adopted by bhikkhus as a “way” (paṭipadā) or guide to practice. The
suttas mentioned here are Rathavinīta (M I 145), Nālaka (Sn, p. 131), Tuvaṭaka (Sn 179),
Noble One’s Heritages (ariyavaṃsa—A II 27). Others are mentioned at M-a I 92; III 6;
S-a III 291. The Ariyavaṃsa Sutta itself has a long commentary on practice, and it is
mentioned in the Commentaries as a popular subject for preaching (see e.g. commentary
to AN III 42).

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46. 6. Travel is going on a journey. If someone is expected to give the going forth
somewhere else, or if some requisite is obtainable there and he cannot rest content
without getting it [that will be an impediment; for] even if he goes into the forest
to do the ascetic’s duties, he will find it hard to get rid of thoughts about the journey.
So one in this position should apply himself to the ascetic’s duties after he has
done the journey and transacted the business.

47. 7 Kin in the case of the monastery means teacher, preceptor, co-resident, pupil,
those with the same preceptor as oneself, and those with the same teacher as oneself;
and in the case of the house it means mother, father, brother, and so on. When they
are sick they are an impediment for him. Therefore that impediment should be
severed by curing them with nursing.

48. Herein, when the preceptor is sick he must be cared for as long as life lasts if
the sickness does not soon depart. Likewise the teacher at the going forth, the
teacher at the admission, the co-resident, the pupils to whom one has given the
admission and the going forth, and those who have the same preceptor. But the
teacher from whom one takes the dependence, the teacher who gives one
instruction, the pupil to whom one has given the dependence, the pupil to whom
one is giving instruction, and those who have that same teacher as oneself, should
be looked after as long as the dependence or the instruction has not been terminated.
If one is able to do so, one should look after them even beyond that [period].

49. Mother and father should be treated like the preceptor; if they live within the
kingdom and look to their son for help, it should be given. [95] Also if they have no
medicine, he should give them his own. If he has none, he should go in search of it
as alms and give that. But in the case of brothers or sisters, one should only give
them what is theirs. If they have none, then one should give one’s own temporarily
and later get it back, but one should not complain if one does not get it back. It is
not allowed either to make medicine for or to give it to a sister’s husband who is
not related by blood; but one can give it to one’s sister saying, “Give it to your
husband.” The same applies to one’s brother’s wife. But it is allowed to make it for
their children since they are blood relatives.

50. 8. Affliction is any kind of illness. It is an impediment when it is actually
afflicting; therefore it should be severed by treatment with medicine. But if it is not
cured after taking medicine for a few days, then the ascetic’s duties should be
done after apostrophizing one’s person in this way: “I am not your slave, or your
hireling. I have come to suffering through maintaining you through the
beginningless round of rebirths.”

51.

9. Books means responsibility for the scriptures. That is an impediment only

for one who is constantly busy with recitations, etc., but not for others. Here are
relevant stories. The Elder Revata, it seems, the Majjhima reciter, went to the Elder
Revata, the dweller in Malaya (the Hill Country), and asked him for a meditation
subject. The elder asked him, “How are you in the scriptures, friend?”—”I am
studying the Majjhima [Nikāya], venerable sir.”—”The Majjhima is a hard
responsibility, friend. When a man is still learning the First Fifty by heart, he is
faced with the Middle Fifty; and when he is still learning that by heart, he is faced

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with the Last Fifty. How can you take up a meditation subject?”—”Venerable sir,
when I have taken a meditation subject from you, I shall not look at the scriptures
again.” He took the meditation subject, and doing no recitation for nineteen years,
he reached Arahantship in the twentieth year. He told bhikkhus who came for
recitation: “I have not looked at the scriptures for twenty years, friends, [96] yet I
am familiar with them. You may begin.” And from beginning to end he had no
hesitation even over a single syllable.

52. The Elder Mahā-Nāga, too, who lived at Karuliyagiri (Karaliyagiri) put aside
the scriptures for eighteen years, and then he recited the Dhātukathā to the
bhikkhus. When they checked this with the town-dwelling elders [of Anurādha-
pura], not a single question was found out of its order.

53. In the Great Monastery too the Elder Tipiṭaka-Cūḷa-Abhaya had the golden
drum struck, saying: “I shall expound the three Piṭakas in the circle of [experts in]
the Five Collections of discourses,” and this was before he had learnt the
commentaries. The Community of Bhikkhus said, “‘Which teachers’ teaching is
it? Unless you give only the teaching of our own teachers we shall not let you
speak.” Also his preceptor asked him when he went to wait on him, “Did you have
the drum beaten, friend?”—”Yes, venerable sir.”—”For what reason?”—”I shall
expound the scriptures, venerable sir.”—”Friend Abhaya, how do the teachers
explain this passage?”—”They explain it in this way, venerable sir.” The elder
dissented, saying “Hum.” Again three times, each time in a different way, he said,
“They explain it in this way, venerable sir.” The elder always dissented, saying,
“Hum.” Then he said, “Friend, your first explanation was the way of the teachers.
But it is because you have not actually learnt it from the teachers’ lips that you are
unable to maintain that the teachers say such and such. Go and learn it from our
own teachers.”—”Where shall I go, venerable sir?”—”There is an elder named Mahā
Dhammarakkhita living in the Tulādhārapabbata Monastery in the Rohaṇa country
beyond the [Mahaveli] River. He knows all the scriptures. Go to him.” Saying,
“Good, venerable sir,” he paid homage to the elder. He went with five hundred
bhikkhus to the Elder Mahā-Dhammarakkhita, and when he had paid homage to
him, he sat down. The elder asked, “Why have you come?”—”To hear the Dhamma,
venerable sir.”—”Friend Abhaya, they ask me about the Dīgha and the Majjhima
from time to time, but I have not looked at the others for thirty years. Still you may
repeat them in my presence by night, and I shall explain them to you by day.” He
said, “Good, venerable sir,” and he acted accordingly.

54. The inhabitants of the village had a large pavilion built at the door of his
dwelling, and they came daily to hear the Dhamma. Explaining by day what had
been repeated by night, [97] the Elder [Dhammarakkhita] eventually completed
the instruction. Then he sat down on a mat on the ground before the Elder Abhaya
and said, “Friend, explain a meditation subject to me.”—”What are you saying,
venerable sir, have I not heard it all from you? What can I explain to you that you
do not already know?” The senior elder said, “This path is different for one who
has actually travelled by.”

55. The Elder Abhaya was then, it seems, a stream-enterer. When the Elder Abhaya
had given his teacher a meditation subject, he returned to Anurādhapura. Later,

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while he was expounding the Dhamma in the Brazen Palace, he heard that the
elder had attained Nibbāna. On hearing this, he said, “Bring me [my] robe, friends.”
Then he put on the robe and said, “The Arahant path befits our teacher, friends.
Our teacher was a true thoroughbred. He sat down on a mat before his own
Dhamma pupil and said, ‘Explain a meditation subject to me.’ The Arahant path
befits our teacher, friends.”

For such as these, books are no impediment.

56.

10. Supernormal powers are the supernormal powers of the ordinary man.

They are hard to maintain, like a prone infant or like young corn, and the
slightest thing breaks them. But they are an impediment for insight, not for
concentration, since they are obtainable through concentration. So the
supernormal powers are an impediment that should be severed by one who
seeks insight; the others are impediments to be severed by one who seeks
concentration.

This, in the first place, is the detailed explanation of the impediments.

57. Approach the good friend, the giver of a meditation subject (§28): meditation subjects
are of two kinds, that is, generally useful meditation subjects and special meditation
subjects. Herein, loving-kindness towards the Community of Bhikkhus, etc., and
also mindfulness of death are what are called generally useful meditation subjects.
Some say perception of foulness, too.

58.

When a bhikkhu takes up a meditation subject, he should first develop

loving-kindness towards the Community of Bhikkhus within the boundary,16
limiting it at first [to “all bhikkhus in this monastery”], in this way: “May they
be happy and free from affliction.” Then he should develop it towards all deities
within the boundary. Then towards all the principal people in the village that
is his alms resort; then to [all human beings there and to] all living beings
dependent on the human beings. With loving-kindness towards the Community
of Bhikkhus he produces kindliness in his co-residents; then they are easy for
him to live with. With loving-kindness towards the deities within the boundary
he is protected by kindly deities with lawful protection. [98] With loving-
kindness towards the principal people in the village that is his alms resort his
requisites are protected by well-disposed principal people with lawful
protection. With loving-kindness to all human beings there he goes about
without incurring their dislike since they trust him. With loving-kindness to
all living beings he can wander unhindered everywhere.

With mindfulness of death, thinking, “I have got to die,” he gives up improper

search (see S II 194; M-a I 115), and with a growing sense of urgency he comes to
live without attachment. When his mind is familiar with the perception of foulness,
then even divine objects do not tempt his mind to greed.

16. Sīmā—”boundary”: loosely used in this sense, it corresponds vaguely to what is meant
by “parish.” In the strict sense it is the actual area (usually a “chapter house”) agreed
according to the rules laid down in the Vinaya and marked by boundary stones, within
which the Community (saṅgha) carries out its formal acts.

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59. So these are called “generally useful” and they are “called meditation subjects”
since they are needed17 generally and desirable owing to their great helpfulness
and since they are subjects for the meditation work intended.

60. What is called a “special meditation subject” is that one from among the forty
meditation subjects that is suitable to a man’s own temperament. It is “special”
(pārihāriya) because he must carry it (pariharitabbattā) constantly about with him,
and because it is the proximate cause for each higher stage of development.

So it is the one who gives this twofold meditation subject that is called the giver

of a meditation subject.

61. The good friend is one who possesses such special qualities as these:

He is revered and dearly loved,
And one who speaks and suffers speech;
The speech he utters is profound,
He does not urge without a reason (A IV 32) and so on.
He is wholly solicitous of welfare and partial to progress.

62. Because of the words beginning, “Ánanda, it is owing to my being a good
friend to them that living beings subject to birth are freed from birth” (S I 88), it is
only the Fully Enlightened One who possesses all the aspects of the good friend.
Since that is so, while he is available only a meditation subject taken in the Blessed
One’s presence is well taken.

But after his final attainment of Nibbāna, it is proper to take it from anyone of

the eighty great disciples still living. When they are no more available, one who
wants to take a particular meditation subject should take it from someone with
cankers destroyed, who has, by means of that particular meditation subject,
produced the fourfold and fivefold jhāna, and has reached the destruction of cankers
by augmenting insight that had that jhāna as its proximate cause.

63. But how then, does someone with cankers destroyed declare himself thus: “I am
one whose cankers are destroyed?” Why not? He declares himself when he knows
that his instructions will be carried out. Did not the Elder Assagutta [99] spread out
his leather mat in the air and sitting cross-legged on it explain a meditation subject to
a bhikkhu who was starting his meditation subject, because he knew that that bhikkhu
was one who would carry out his instructions for the meditation subject?

64. So if someone with cankers destroyed is available, that is good. If not, then
one should take it from a non-returner, a once-returner, a stream-enterer, an
ordinary man who has obtained jhāna, one who knows three Piṭakas, one who
knows two Piṭakas, one who knows one Piṭaka, in descending order [according as
available]. If not even one who knows one Piṭaka is available, then it should be
taken from one who is familiar with one Collection together with its commentary
and one who is himself conscientious. For a teacher such as this, who knows the
texts, guards the heritage, and protects the tradition, will follow the teachers’
opinion rather than his own. Hence the Ancient Elders said three times, “One who
is conscientious will guard it.”

17. Atthayitabba—”needed”: not in PED, not in CPD.

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65. Now, those beginning with one whose cankers are destroyed, mentioned above,
will describe only the path they have themselves reached. But with a learned man,
his instructions and his answers to questions are purified by his having approached
such and such teachers, and so he will explain a meditation subject showing a
broad track, like a big elephant going through a stretch of jungle, and he will select
suttas and reasons from here and there, adding [explanations of] what is suitable
and unsuitable. So a meditation subject should be taken by approaching the good
friend such as this, the giver of a meditation subject, and by doing all the duties to
him.

66. If he is available in the same monastery, it is good. If not, one should go to
where he lives.

When [a bhikkhu] goes to him, he should not do so with feet washed and

anointed, wearing sandals, with an umbrella, surrounded by pupils, and bringing
oil tube, honey, molasses, etc.; he should do so fulfilling the duties of a bhikkhu
setting out on a journey, carrying his bowl and robes himself, doing all the duties
in each monastery on the way, with few belongings, and living in the greatest
effacement. When entering that monastery, he should do so [expecting nothing,
and even provided] with a tooth-stick that he has had made allowable on the way
[according to the rules]. And he should not enter some other room, thinking, “I
shall go to the teacher after resting awhile and after washing and anointing my
feet, and so on.”

67. Why? If there are bhikkhus there who are hostile to the teacher, they might
ask him the reason for his coming and speak dispraise of the teacher, saying, “You
are done for if you go to him”; [100] they might make him regret his coming and
turn him back. So he should ask for the teacher’s dwelling and go straight there.

68. If the teacher is junior, he should not consent to the teacher’s receiving his
bowl and robe, and so on. If the teacher is senior, then he should go and pay homage
to him and remain standing. When told, “Put down the bowl and robe, friend,” he
may put them down. When told, “Have some water to drink,” he can drink if he
wants to. When told, “You may wash your feet,” he should not do so at once, for if
the water has been brought by the teacher himself, it would be improper. But when
told “Wash, friend, it was not brought by me, it was brought by others,” then he
can wash his feet, sitting in a screened place out of sight of the teacher, or in the
open to one side of the dwelling.

69. If the teacher brings an oil tube, he should get up and take it carefully with
both hands. If he did not take it, it might make the teacher wonder, “Does this
bhikkhu resent sharing so soon?” but having taken it, he should not anoint his feet
at once. For if it were oil for anointing the teacher’s limbs, it would not be proper.
So he should first anoint his head, then his shoulders, etc.; but when told, “This is
meant for all the limbs, friend, anoint your feet,” he should put a little on his head
and then anoint his feet. Then he should give it back, saying when the teacher
takes it, “May I return this oil tube, venerable sir?”

70. He should not say, “Explain a meditation subject to me, venerable sir” on the
very day he arrives. But starting from the next day, he can, if the teacher has a

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habitual attendant, ask his permission to do the duties. If he does not allow it
when asked, they can be done when the opportunity offers. When he does them,
three tooth-sticks should be brought, a small, a medium and a big one, and two
kinds of mouth-washing water and bathing water, that is, hot and cold, should be
set out. Whichever of these the teacher uses for three days should then be brought
regularly. If the teacher uses either kind indiscriminately, he can bring whatever is
available.

71. Why so many words? All should be done as prescribed by the Blessed One in
the Khandhakas as the right duties in the passage beginning: “Bhikkhus, a pupil
should perform the duties to the teacher [101] rightly. Herein, this is the right
performance of duties. He should rise early; removing his sandals and arranging
his robe on one shoulder, he should give the tooth-sticks and the mouth-washing
water, and he should prepare the seat. If there is rice gruel, he should wash the
dish and bring the rice gruel” (Vin I 61).

72. To please the teacher by perfection in the duties he should pay homage in the
evening, and he should leave when dismissed with the words, “You may go.” When
the teacher asks him, “Why have you come?” he can explain the reason for his
coming. If he does not ask but agrees to the duties being done, then after ten days
or a fortnight have gone by he should make an opportunity by staying back one
day at the time of his dismissal, and announcing the reason for his coming; or he
should go at an unaccustomed time, and when asked, “What have you come for?”
he can announce it.

73. If the teacher says, “Come in the morning,” he should do so. But if his stomach
burns with a bile affliction at that hour, or if his food does not get digested owing
to sluggish digestive heat, or if some other ailment afflicts him, he should let it be
known, and proposing a time that suits himself, he should come at that time. For if
a meditation subject is expounded at an inconvenient time, one cannot give attention.

This is the detailed explanation of the words “approach the good friend, the

giver of a meditation subject.”

74. Now, as to the words, one that suits his temperament (§28): there are six kinds of
temperament, that is, greedy temperament, hating temperament, deluded
temperament, faithful temperament, intelligent temperament, and speculative
temperament. Some would have fourteen, taking these six single ones together
with the four made up of the three double combinations and one triple combination
with the greed triad and likewise with the faith triad. But if this classification is
admitted, there are many more kinds of temperament possible by combining greed,
etc., with faith, etc.; therefore the kinds of temperament should be understood
briefly as only six. As to meaning the temperaments are one, that is to say, personal
nature, idiosyncrasy. According to [102] these there are only six types of persons,
that is, one of greedy temperament, one of hating temperament, one of deluded
temperament, one of faithful temperament, one of intelligent temperament, and
one of speculative temperament.

75. Herein, one of faithful temperament is parallel to one of greedy temperament
because faith is strong when profitable [kamma] occurs in one of greedy

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temperament, owing to its special qualities being near to those of greed. For, in an
unprofitable way, greed is affectionate and not over-austere, and so, in a profitable
way, is faith. Greed seeks out sense desires as object, while faith seeks out the
special qualities of virtue and so on. And greed does not give up what is harmful,
while faith does not give up what is beneficial.

76. One of intelligent temperament is parallel to one of hating temperament
because understanding is strong when profitable [kamma] occurs in one of hating
temperament, owing to its special qualities being near to those of hate. For, in an
unprofitable way, hate is disaffected and does not hold to its object, and so, in a
profitable way, is understanding. Hate seeks out only unreal faults, while
understanding seeks out only real faults. And hate occurs in the mode of
condemning living beings, while understanding occurs in the mode of condemning
formations.

77. One of speculative temperament is parallel to one of deluded temperament
because obstructive applied thoughts arise often in one of deluded temperament
who is striving to arouse unarisen profitable states, owing to their special qualities
being near to those of delusion. For just as delusion is restless owing to perplexity,
so are applied thoughts that are due to thinking over various aspects. And just as
delusion vacillates owing to superficiality, so do applied thoughts that are due to
facile conjecturing.

78. Others say that there are three more kinds of temperament with craving, pride,
and views. Herein craving is simply greed; and pride18 is associated with that, so
neither of them exceeds greed. And since views have their source in delusion, the
temperament of views falls within the deluded temperament.

79. What is the source of these temperaments? And how is it to be known that
such a person is of greedy temperament, that such a person is of one of those
beginning with hating temperament? What suits one of what kind of temperament?

80. Herein, as some say,19 the first three kinds of temperament to begin with have
their source in previous habit; and they have their source in elements and humours.
Apparently one of greedy temperament has formerly had plenty of desirable tasks
and gratifying work to do, or has reappeared here after dying in a heaven. And one

18. Māna, usually rendered by “pride,” is rendered here both by “pride” and “conceit.”
Etymologically it is derived perhaps from māneti (to honour) or mināti (to measure). In
sense, however, it tends to become associated with maññati, to conceive (false notions,
see M I 1), to imagine, to think (as e.g. at Nidd I 80, Vibh 390 and comy.). As one of the
“defilements” (see M I 36) it is probably best rendered by “pride.” In the expression
asmi-māna (often rendered by “the pride that says ‘I am’”) it more nearly approaches
maññanā (false imagining, misconception, see M III 246) and is better rendered by the
“conceit ‘I am,’” since the word “conceit” straddles both the meanings of “pride” (i.e.
haughtiness) and “conception.”
19. “‘Some’ is said with reference to the Elder Upatissa. For it is put in this way by
him in the Vimuttimagga. The word ‘apparently’ indicates dissent from what follows”
(Vism-mhṭ 103). A similar passage to that referred to appears in Ch. 6 (Taisho ed. p. 410a)
of the Chinese version of the Vimuttimagga, the only one extant.

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of hating temperament has formerly had plenty of stabbing and torturing and
brutal work to do or has reappeared here after dying in one of the hells or the nāga
(serpent) existences. And one [103] of deluded temperament has formerly drunk a
lot of intoxicants and neglected learning and questioning, or has reappeared here
after dying in the animal existence. It is in this way that they have their source in
previous habit, they say.

81.

Then a person is of deluded temperament because two elements are

prominent, that is to say, the earth element and the water element. He is of hating
temperament because the other two elements are prominent. But he is of greedy
temperament because all four are equal. And as regards the humours, one of greedy
temperament has phlegm in excess and one of deluded temperament has wind in
excess. Or one of deluded temperament has phlegm in excess and one of greedy
temperament has wind in excess. So they have their source in the elements and the
humours, they say.

82. [Now, it can rightly be objected that] not all of those who have had plenty of
desirable tasks and gratifying work to do, and who have reappeared here after
dying in a heaven, are of greedy temperament, or the others respectively of hating
and deluded temperament; and there is no such law of prominence of elements
(see XIV.43f.) as that asserted; and only the pair, greed and delusion, are given in
the law of humours, and even that subsequently contradicts itself; and no source
for even one among those beginning with one of faithful temperament is given.
Consequently this definition is indecisive.

83. The following is the exposition according to the opinion of the teachers of the
commentaries; or this is said in the “explanation of prominence”: “The fact that
these beings have prominence of greed, prominence of hate, prominence of delusion,
is governed by previous root-cause.

“For when in one man, at the moment of his accumulating [rebirth-producing]

kamma, greed is strong and non-greed is weak, non-hate and non-delusion are
strong and hate and delusion are weak, then his weak non-greed is unable to prevail
over his greed, but his non-hate and non-delusion being strong are able to prevail
over his hate and delusion. That is why, on being reborn through rebirth-linking
given by that kamma, he has greed, is good-natured and unangry, and possesses
understanding with knowledge like a lightning flash.

84. “When, at the moment of another’s accumulating kamma, greed and hate are
strong and non-greed and non-hate weak, and non-delusion is strong and delusion
weak, then in the way already stated he has both greed and hate but possesses
understanding with knowledge like a lightning flash, like the Elder Datta-Abhaya.

“When, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, greed, non-hate and delusion

are strong and the others are weak, then in the way already stated he both has
greed and is dull but is good-tempered20 and unangry, like the Elder Bahula.

20.

Sīlaka—”good-tempered”—sukhasīla (good-natured—see §83), which = sakhila

(kindly—Vism-mhṭ 104). Not in PED.

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“Likewise when, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, the three, namely,

greed, hate and delusion are strong and non-greed, etc., are weak, then in the way
already stated he has both greed and hate and is deluded. [104]

85.

“When, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, non-greed, hate and

delusion are strong and the others are weak, then in the way already stated he has
little defilement and is unshakable even on seeing a heavenly object, but he has
hate and is slow in understanding.

“When, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, non-greed, non-hate and

non-delusion are strong and the rest weak, then in the way already stated he has
no greed and no hate, and is good-tempered but slow in understanding.

“Likewise when, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, non-greed, hate

and non-delusion are strong and the rest weak, then in the way already stated he
both has no greed and possesses understanding but has hate and is irascible.

“Likewise when, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, the three, that is,

non-hate, non-greed, and non-delusion, are strong and greed, etc., are weak, then
in the way already stated he has no greed and no hate and possesses understanding,
like the Elder Mahā-Saṅgharakkhita.”

86. One who, as it is said here, “has greed” is one of greedy temperament; one
who “has hate” and one who “is dull” are respectively of hating temperament and
deluded temperament. One who “possesses understanding” is one of intelligent
temperament. One who “has no greed” and one who “has no hate” are of faithful
temperament because they are naturally trustful. Or just as one who is reborn
through kamma accompanied by non-delusion is of intelligent temperament, so
one who is reborn through kamma accompanied by strong faith is of faithful
temperament, one who is reborn through kamma accompanied by thoughts of
sense desire is of speculative temperament, and one who is reborn through kamma
accompanied by mixed greed, etc., is of mixed temperament. So it is the kamma
productive of rebirth-linking and accompanied by someone among the things
beginning with greed that should be understood as the source of the temperaments.

87.

But it was asked, and how is it to be known that “This person is of greedy

temperament?” (§79), and so on. This is explained as follows:

By the posture, by the action,
By eating, seeing, and so on,
By the kind of states occurring,
May temperament be recognized.

88.

Herein, by the posture: when one of greedy temperament is walking in his

usual manner, he walks carefully, puts his foot down slowly, puts it down evenly,
lifts it up evenly, and his step is springy.21

One of hating temperament walks as though he were digging with the points of his

feet, puts his foot down quickly, lifts it up quickly, and his step is dragged along.

21. Ukkuṭika—”springy” is glossed here by asamphuṭṭhamajjhaṃ (“not touching in the
middle”—Vism-mhṭ 106). This meaning is not in PED.

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One of deluded temperament walks with a perplexed gait, puts his foot down hesitantly,

lifts it up hesitantly, [105] and his step is pressed down suddenly.

And this is said in the account of the origin of the Māgandiya Sutta:

The step of one of greedy nature will be springy;
The step of one of hating nature, dragged along;
Deluded, he will suddenly press down his step;
And one without defilement has a step like this.22

89. The stance of one of greedy temperament is confident and graceful. That of one
of hating temperament is rigid. That of one of deluded temperament is muddled,
likewise in sitting. And one of greedy temperament spreads his bed unhurriedly, lies
down slowly, composing his limbs, and he sleeps in a confident manner. When woken,
instead of getting up quickly, he gives his answer slowly as though doubtful. One of
hating temperament spreads his bed hastily anyhow; with his body flung down he
sleeps with a scowl. When woken, he gets up quickly and answers as though annoyed.
One of deluded temperament spreads his bed all awry and sleeps mostly face
downwards with his body sprawling. When woken, he gets up slowly, saying, “Hum.”

90.

Since those of faithful temperament, etc., are parallel to those of greedy

temperament, etc., their postures are therefore like those described above.

This firstly is how the temperaments may be recognized by the posture.

91. By the action: also in the acts of sweeping, etc., one of greedy temperament
grasps the broom well, and he sweeps cleanly and evenly without hurrying or
scattering the sand, as if he were strewing sinduvāra flowers. One of hating
temperament grasps the broom tightly, and he sweeps uncleanly and unevenly
with a harsh noise, hurriedly throwing up the sand on each side. One of deluded
temperament grasps the broom loosely, and he sweeps neither cleanly nor evenly,
mixing the sand up and turning it over.

92. As with sweeping, so too with any action such as washing and dyeing robes,
and so on. One of greedy temperament acts skilfully, gently, evenly and carefully.
One of hating temperament acts tensely, stiffly and unevenly. One of deluded
temperament acts unskilfully as if muddled, unevenly and indecisively. [106]

Also one of greedy temperament wears his robe neither too tightly nor too

loosely, confidently and level all round. One of hating temperament wears it too
tight and not level all round. One of deluded temperament wears it loosely and in
a muddled way.

Those of faithful temperament, etc., should be understood in the same way as

those just described, since they are parallel.

This is how the temperaments may be recognized by the actions.

93. By eating: One of greedy temperament likes eating rich sweet food. When
eating, he makes a round lump not too big and eats unhurriedly, savouring the
various tastes. He enjoys getting something good. One of hating temperament likes
eating rough sour food. When eating he makes a lump that fills his mouth, and he

22. See Sn-a 544, A-a 436.

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eats hurriedly without savouring the taste. He is aggrieved when he gets something
not good. One of deluded temperament has no settled choice. When eating, he
makes a small un-rounded lump, and as he eats he drops bits into his dish, smearing
his face, with his mind astray, thinking of this and that.

Also those of faithful temperament, etc., should be understood in the same way

as those just described since they are parallel.

This is how the temperament may be recognized by eating.

94. And by seeing and so on: when one of greedy temperament sees even a slightly
pleasing visible object, he looks long as if surprised, he seizes on trivial virtues,
discounts genuine faults, and when departing, he does so with regret as if unwilling
to leave. When one of hating temperament sees even a slightly unpleasing visible
object, he avoids looking long as if he were tired, he picks out trivial faults, discounts
genuine virtues, and when departing, he does so without regret as if anxious to
leave. When one of deluded temperament sees any sort of visible object, he copies
what others do: if he hears others criticizing, he criticizes; if he hears others praising,
he praises; but actually he feels equanimity in himself—the equanimity of
unknowing. So too with sounds, and so on.

And those of faithful temperament, etc., should be understood in the same way

as those just described since they are parallel.

This is how the temperaments may be recognized by seeing and so on.

95. By the kind of states occurring: in one of greedy temperament there is frequent
occurrence of such states as deceit, fraud, pride, evilness of wishes, greatness of
wishes, discontent, foppery and personal vanity.23 [107] In one of hating
temperament there is frequent occurrence of such states as anger, enmity,
disparaging, domineering, envy and avarice. In one of deluded temperament there
is frequent occurrence of such states as stiffness, torpor, agitation, worry, uncertainty,
and holding on tenaciously with refusal to relinquish.

23. Siṅga—”foppery” is not in PED in this sense. See Vibh 351 and commentary.

Cāpalya (cāpalla)—”personal vanity”: noun from adj. capala. The word “capala” comes

in an often-repeated passage: “saṭhā māyāvino keṭubhino uddhatā unnalā capalā mukharā
…” (M I 32); cf. S I 203; A III 199, etc.) and also M I 470 “uddhato hoti capalo,” with two
lines lower “uddhaccaṃ cāpalyaṃ.” Cāpalya also occurs at Vibh 351 (and M II 167). At M-
a I 152 (commenting on M I 32) we find: capalā ti pattacīvaramaṇḍanādinā cāpallena yuttā
(“interested in personal vanity consisting in adorning bowl and robe and so on”), and
at M-a III 185 (commenting on M I 470): Uddhato hoti capalo ti uddhaccapakatiko c’eva hoti
cīvaramaṇḍanā pattamaṇḍanā senāsanamaṇḍanā imassa vā pūtikāyassa kelāyanamaṇḍanā ti
evaṃ vuttena taruṇadārakacāpallena samannāgato (“‘he is distracted—or puffed up—and
personally vain’: he is possessed of the callow youth’s personal vanity described as
adorning the robe, adorning the bowl, adorning the lodging, or prizing and adorning
this filthy body”). This meaning is confirmed in the commentary to Vibh 251. PED
does not give this meaning at all but only “fickle,” which is unsupported by the
commentary. CPD (acapala) also does not give this meaning.

As to the other things listed here in the Visuddhimagga text, most will be found at M

I 36. For “holding on tenaciously,” etc., see M I 43.

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In one of faithful temperament there is frequent occurrence of such states as

free generosity, desire to see Noble Ones, desire to hear the Good Dhamma, great
gladness, ingenuousness, honesty, and trust in things that inspire trust. In one of
intelligent temperament there is frequent occurrence of such states as readiness to
be spoken to, possession of good friends, knowledge of the right amount in eating,
mindfulness and full awareness, devotion to wakefulness, a sense of urgency about
things that should inspire a sense of urgency, and wisely directed endeavour. In
one of speculative temperament there is frequent occurrence of such states as
talkativeness, sociability, boredom with devotion to the profitable, failure to finish
undertakings, smoking by night and flaming by day (see M I 144—that is to say,
hatching plans at night and putting them into effect by day), and mental running
hither and thither (see Ud 37).

This is how the temperaments may be recognized by the kind of states occurring.

96. However, these directions for recognizing the temperaments have not been handed
down in their entirety in either the texts or the commentaries; they are only expressed
according to the opinion of the teachers and cannot therefore be treated as authentic.
For even those of hating temperament can exhibit postures, etc., ascribed to the greedy
temperament when they try diligently. And postures, etc., never arise with distinct
characteristics in a person of mixed temperament. Only such directions for recognizing
temperament as are given in the commentaries should be treated as authentic; for this
is said: “A teacher who has acquired penetration of minds will know the temperament
and will explain a meditation subject accordingly; one who has not should question
the pupil.” So it is by penetration of minds or by questioning the person, that it can be
known whether he is one of greedy temperament or one of those beginning with
hating temperament.

97. What suits one of what kind of temperament? (§79). A suitable lodging for one of
greedy temperament has an unwashed sill and stands level with the ground, and
it can be either an overhanging [rock with an] unprepared [drip-ledge] (see Ch. II,
note 15), a grass hut, or a leaf house, etc. It ought to be spattered with dirt, full of
bats,24 dilapidated, too high or too low, in bleak surroundings, threatened [by lions,
tigers, etc.,] with a muddy, uneven path, [108] where even the bed and chair are full
of bugs. And it should be ugly and unsightly, exciting loathing as soon as looked
at. Suitable inner and outer garments are those that have torn-off edges with threads
hanging down all round like a “net cake,”25 harsh to the touch like hemp, soiled,
heavy and hard to wear. And the right kind of bowl for him is an ugly clay bowl
disfigured by stoppings and joints, or a heavy and misshapen iron bowl as
unappetizing as a skull. The right kind of road for him on which to wander for
alms is disagreeable, with no village near, and uneven. The right kind of village for
him in which to wander for alms is where people wander about as if oblivious of
him, where, as he is about to leave without getting alms even from a single family,
people call him into the sitting hall, saying, “Come, venerable sir,” and give him

24. Jatukā—”a bat”: not in PED. Also at Ch. XI. §7.
25. Jalapūvasadisa—”like a net cake”: “A cake made like a net” (Vism-mhṭ 108); possibly
what is now known in Sri Lanka as a “string hopper,” or something like it.

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gruel and rice, but do so as casually as if they were putting a cow in a pen. Suitable
people to serve him are slaves or workmen who are unsightly, ill-favoured, with
dirty clothes, ill-smelling and disgusting, who serve him his gruel and rice as if
they were throwing it rudely at him. The right kind of gruel and rice and hard
food is poor, unsightly, made up of millet, kudusaka, broken rice, etc., stale buttermilk,
sour gruel, curry of old vegetables, or anything at all that is merely for filling the
stomach. The right kind of posture for him is either standing or walking. The object
of his contemplation should be any of the colour kasiṇas, beginning with the blue,
whose colour is not pure. This is what suits one of greedy temperament.

98. A suitable resting place for one of hating temperament is not too high or too
low, provided with shade and water, with well-proportioned walls, posts and steps,
with well-prepared frieze work and lattice work, brightened with various kinds of
painting, with an even, smooth, soft floor, adorned with festoons of flowers and a
canopy of many-coloured cloth like a Brahmā-god’s divine palace, with bed and
chair covered with well-spread clean pretty covers, smelling sweetly of flowers,
and perfumes and scents set about for homely comfort, which makes one happy
and glad at the mere sight of it.

99. The right kind of road to his lodging is free from any sort of danger, traverses
clean, even ground, and has been properly prepared. [109] And here it is best that
the lodging’s furnishings are not too many in order to avoid hiding-places for
insects, bugs, snakes and rats: even a single bed and chair only. The right kind of
inner and outer garments for him are of any superior stuff such as China cloth,
Somāra cloth, silk, fine cotton, fine linen, of either single or double thickness, quite
light, and well dyed, quite pure in colour to befit an ascetic. The right kind of bowl
is made of iron, as well shaped as a water bubble, as polished as a gem, spotless,
and of quite pure colour to befit an ascetic. The right kind of road on which to
wander for alms is free from dangers, level, agreeable, with the village neither too
far nor too near. The right kind of village in which to wander for alms is where
people, thinking, “Now our lord is coming,” prepare a seat in a sprinkled, swept
place, and going out to meet him, take his bowl, lead him to the house, seat him on
a prepared seat and serve him carefully with their own hands.

100.

Suitable people to serve him are handsome, pleasing, well bathed, well

anointed, scented26 with the perfume of incense and the smell of flowers, adorned
with apparel made of variously-dyed clean pretty cloth, who do their work carefully.
The right kind of gruel, rice, and hard food has colour, smell and taste, possesses
nutritive essence, and is inviting, superior in every way, and enough for his wants.
The right kind of posture for him is lying down or sitting. The object of his
contemplation should be anyone of the colour kasiṇas, beginning with the blue,
whose colour is quite pure. This is what suits one of hating temperament.

101. The right lodging for one of deluded temperament has a view and is not shut
in, where the four quarters are visible to him as he sits there. As to the postures, walking
is right. The right kind of object for his contemplation is not small, that is to say, the
size of a winnowing basket or the size of a saucer; for his mind becomes more confused

26. Surabhi—”scented, perfume”: not in PED; also at VI.90; X.60 and Vism-mhṭ 445.

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in a confined space; so the right kind is an amply large kasiṇa. The rest is as stated for
one of hating temperament. This is what suits one of deluded temperament.

102.

For one of faithful temperament all the directions given for one of hating

temperament are suitable. As to the object of his contemplation, one of the
recollections is right as well.

For one of intelligent temperament there is nothing unsuitable as far as concerns

the lodging and so on.

For one of speculative temperament an open lodging with a view, [110] where

gardens, groves and ponds, pleasant prospects, panoramas of villages, towns and
countryside, and the blue gleam of mountains, are visible to him as he sits there, is
not right; for that is a condition for the running hither and thither of applied thought.
So he should live in a lodging such as a deep cavern screened by woods like the
Overhanging Rock of the Elephant’s Belly (Hatthikucchipabbhāra), or Mahinda’s
Cave. Also an ample-sized object of contemplation is not suitable for him; for one
like that is a condition for the running hither and thither of applied thought. A
small one is right. The rest is as stated for one of greedy temperament. This is what
suits one of speculative temperament.

These are the details, with definition of the kind, source, recognition, and what

is suitable, as regards the various temperaments handed down here with the words
“that suits his own temperament” (§60).

103.

However, the meditation subject that is suitable to the temperament has not

been cleared up in all its aspects yet. This will become clear automatically when
those in the following list are treated in detail.

Now, it was said above, “and he should apprehend from among the forty

meditation subjects one that suits his own temperament” (§60). Here the exposition
of the meditation subject should be first understood in these ten ways: (1) as to
enumeration, (2) as to which bring only access and which absorption, (3) at to the
kinds of jhāna, (4) as to surmounting, (5) as to extension and non-extension, (6) as
to object, (7) as to plane, (8) as to apprehending, (9) as to condition, (10) as to
suitability to temperament.

104.

1. Herein, as to enumeration: it was said above, “from among the forty

meditation subjects” (§28). Herein, the forty meditation subjects are these:

ten kasiṇas (totalities),
ten kinds of foulness,
ten recollections,
four divine abidings,
four immaterial states,
one perception,
one defining.

105.

Herein, the ten kasiṇas are these: earth kasiṇa, water kasiṇa, fire kasiṇa, air

kasiṇa, blue kasiṇa, yellow kasiṇa, red kasiṇa, white kasiṇa, light kasiṇa, and
limited-space kasiṇa.27

27. “‘Kasiṇa’ is in the sense of entirety (sakalaṭṭhena)” (M-a III 260). See IV.119.

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The ten kinds of foulness are these: the bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-

up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-
infested, and a skeleton.28

The ten kinds of recollection are these: recollection of the Buddha (the

Enlightened One), recollection of the Dhamma (the Law), recollection of the Sangha
(the Community), recollection of virtue, recollection of generosity, recollection of
deities, recollection (or mindfulness) of death, mindfulness occupied with the body,
mindfulness of breathing, and recollection of peace. [111]

The four divine abidings are these: loving-kindness, compassion, gladness, and

equanimity.

The four immaterial states are these: the base consisting of boundless space, the

base consisting of boundless consciousness, the base consisting of nothingness,
and the base consisting of neither perception nor non-perception.

The one perception is the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment.

The one defining is the defining of the four elements.

This is how the exposition should be understood “as to enumeration.”

106.

2 As to which bring access only and which absorption: the eight recollections—

excepting mindfulness occupied with the body and mindfulness of breathing—
the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment, and the defining of the four elements,
are ten meditation subjects that bring access only. The others bring absorption.
This is “as to which bring access only and which absorption.”

107.

3. As to the kind of jhāna: among those that bring absorption, the ten kasiṇas

together with mindfulness of breathing bring all four jhānas. The ten kinds of
foulness together with mindfulness occupied with the body bring the first jhāna.

28. Here ten kinds of foulness are given. But in the Suttas only either five or six of this
set appear to be mentioned, that is, “Perception of a skeleton, perception of the worm-
infested, perception of the livid, perception of the cut-up, perception of the bloated.
(see A I 42 and S V 131; A II 17 adds “perception of the festering”)” No details are
given. All ten appear at Dhs 263–64 and Paṭis I 49. It will be noted that no order of
progress of decay in the kinds of corpse appears here; also the instructions in Ch. VI
are for contemplating actual corpses in these states. The primary purpose here is to
cultivate “repulsiveness.”

Another set of nine progressive stages in the decay of a corpse, mostly different

from these, is given at M I 58, 89, etc., beginning with a corpse one day old and ending
with bones turned to dust. From the words “suppose a bhikkhu saw a corpse thrown
on a charnel ground … he compares this same body of his with it thus, ‘This body too
is of like nature, awaits a like fate, is not exempt from that’”(M I 58), it can be assumed
that these nine, which are given in progressive order of decay in order to demonstrate
the body’s impermanence, are not necessarily intended as contemplations of actual
corpses so much as mental images to be created, the primary purpose being to cultivate
impermanence. This may be why these nine are not used here (see VIII.43).

The word asubha (foul, foulness) is used both of the contemplations of corpses as

here and of the contemplation of the parts of the body (A V 109).

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The first three divine abidings bring three jhānas. The fourth divine abiding and
the four immaterial states bring the fourth jhāna. This is “as to the kind of jhāna.”

108.

4. As to surmounting: there are two kinds of surmounting, that is to say,

surmounting of factors and surmounting of object. Herein, there is surmounting
of factors in the case of all meditation subjects that bring three and four jhānas
because the second jhāna, etc., have to be reached in those same objects by
surmounting the jhāna factors of applied thought and sustained thought, and so
on. Likewise in the case of the fourth divine abiding; for that has to be reached by
surmounting joy in the same object as that of loving-kindness, and so on. But in
the case of the four immaterial states there is surmounting of the object; for the
base consisting of boundless space has to be reached by surmounting one or other
of the first nine kasiṇas, and the base consisting of boundless consciousness, etc.,
have respectively to be reached by surmounting space, and so on. With the rest
there is no surmounting. This is “as to surmounting.”

109.

5. As to extension and non-extension: only the ten kasiṇas among these forty

meditation subjects need be extended. For it is within just so much space as one is
intent upon with the kasiṇa that one can hear sounds with the divine ear element,
see visible objects with the divine eye, and know the minds of other beings with
the mind.

110. Mindfulness occupied with the body and the ten kinds of foulness need not be
extended. Why? Because they have a definite location and because there is no benefit
in it. The definiteness of their location will become clear in explaining the method of
development (VIII.83–138 and VI.40, 41, 79). If the latter are extended, it is only a
quantity of corpses that is extended [112] and there is no benefit. And this is said in
answer to the question of Sopāka: “Perception of visible forms is quite clear, Blessed
One, perception of bones is not clear” (Source untraced29); for here the perception of
visible forms is called “quite clear” in the sense of extension of the sign, while the
perception of bones is called “not quite clear” in the sense of its non-extension.

111.

But the words “I was intent upon this whole earth with the perception of a

skeleton” (Th 18) are said of the manner of appearance to one who has acquired
that perception. For just as in [the Emperor] Dhammāsoka’s time the Karavīka bird
uttered a sweet song when it saw its own reflection in the looking glass walls all
round and perceived Karavīkas in every direction,30 so the Elder [Siṅgāla Pitar]

29. Also quoted in A-a V 79 on AN 11:9. Cf. Sn 1119. A similar quotation with Sopāka
is found in Vism-mhṭ 334–35, see note 1 to XI.2.
30. The full story, which occurs at M-a III 382–83 and elsewhere, is this: “It seems that
when the Karavīka bird has pecked a sweet-flavoured mango wth its beak and savoured
the dripping juice, and flapping its wings, begins to sing, then quadrupeds caper as if
mad. Quadrupeds grazing in their pastures drop the grass in their mouths and listen
to the sound. Beasts of prey hunting small animals pause with one foot raised. Hunted
animals lose their fear of death and halt in their tracks. Birds flying in the air stay with
wings outstretched. Fishes in the water keep still, not moving their fins. All listen to
the sound, so beautiful is the Karavīka’s song. Dhammāsoka’s queen Asandhamittā
asked the Community: ‘Venerable sirs, is there anything that sounds like the Buddha?’—
‘The Karavīka birds does.’—‘Where are those birds, venerable sirs?’—‘In the Himalaya.’

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thought, when he saw the sign appearing in all directions through his acquisition
of the perception of a skeleton, that the whole earth was covered with bones.

112.

If that is so, then is what is called “the measurelessness of the object of jhāna

produced on foulness”31 contradicted? It is not contradicted. For one man
apprehends the sign in a large bloated corpse or skeleton, another in a small one.
In this way the jhāna of the one has a limited object and of the other a measureless
object. Or alternatively, “With a measureless object” (Dhs 182–84 in elision) is said
of it referring to one who extends it, seeing no disadvantage in doing so. But it
need not be extended because no benefit results.

113.

The rest need not be extended likewise. Why? When a man extends the sign

of in-breaths and out-breaths, only a quantity of wind is extended, and it has a
definite location, [the nose-tip]. So it need not be extended because of the
disadvantage and because of the definiteness of the location. And the divine
abidings have living beings as their object. When a man extends the sign of these,
only the quantity of living beings would be extended, and there is no purpose in
that. So that also need not be extended.

114. When it is said, “Intent upon one quarter with his heart endued with loving-
kindness” (D I 250), etc., that is said for the sake of comprehensive inclusion. For it
is when a man develops it progressively by including living beings in one direction
by one house, by two houses, etc., that he is said to be “intent upon one direction,”
[113] not when he extends the sign. And there is no counterpart sign here that he
might extend. Also the state of having a limited or measureless object can be
understood here according to the way of inclusion, too.

115.

As regards the immaterial states as object, space need not be extended since

it is the mere removal of the kasiṇa [materiality]; for that should be brought to
mind only as the disappearance of the kasiṇa [materiality]; if he extends it, nothing
further happens. And consciousness need not be extended since it is a state
consisting in an individual essence, and it is not possible to extend a state consisting
in an individual essence. The disappearance of consciousness need not be extended
since it is mere non-existence of consciousness. And the base consisting of neither

She told the king: ‘Sire, I wish to hear a Karavīka bird.’ The king dispatched a gold
cage with the order, ‘Let a Karavīka bird come and sit in this cage.’ The cage travelled
and halted in front of a Karavīka. Thinking, ‘The cage has come at the king’s command;
it is impossible not to go,’ the bird got in. The cage returned and stopped before the
king. They could not get the Karavīka to utter a sound. When the king asked, ‘When
do they utter a sound?’ they replied, ‘On seeing their kin.’ Then the king had it
surrounded with looking-glasses. Seeing its own reflection and imagining that its
relatives had come, it flapped its wings and cried out with an exquisite voice as if
sounding a crystal trumpet. All the people in the city rushed about as if mad.
Asandhamittā thought: ‘If the sound of this creature is so fine, what indeed can the
sound of the Blessed One have been like since he had reached the glory of omniscient
knowledge?’ and arousing a happiness that she never again relinquished, she became
established in the fruition of stream-entry.”
31. See Dhs 55; but it comes under the “… pe …,” which must be filled in from pp. 37–
38, §182 and §184.

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perception nor non-perception as object need not be extended since it too is a state
consisting in an individual essence.32

116.

The rest need not be extended because they have no sign. For it is the

counterpart sign33 that would be extendable, and the object of the recollection of
the Buddha, etc., is not a counterpart sign. Consequently there is no need for
extension there.

This is “as to extension and non-extension.”

117. 6. As to object: of these forty meditation subjects, twenty-two have counterpart
signs as object, that is to say, the ten kasiṇas, the ten kinds of foulness, mindfulness of
breathing, and mindfulness occupied with the body; the rest do not have counterpart
signs as object. Then twelve have states consisting in individual essences as object, that
is to say, eight of the ten recollections—except mindfulness of breathing and mindfulness
occupied with the body—the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment, the defining
of the elements, the base consisting of boundless consciousness, and the base consisting
of neither perception nor non-perception; and twenty-two have [counterpart] signs as
object, that is to say, the ten kasiṇas, the ten kinds of foulness, mindfulness of breathing,
and mindfulness occupied with the body; while the remaining six have “not-so-
classifiable”34 objects. Then eight have mobile objects in the early stage though the
counterpart is stationary, that is to say, the festering, the bleeding, the worm-infested,
mindfulness of breathing, the water kasiṇa, the fire kasiṇa, the air kasiṇa, and in the
case of the light kasiṇa the object consisting of a circle of sunlight, etc.; the rest have
immobile objects.35 This is “as to object.”

118. 7. As to plane: here the twelve, namely, the ten kinds of foulness, mindfulness
occupied with the body, and perception of repulsiveness in nutriment, do not occur
among deities. These twelve and mindfulness of breathing do not occur in the

32. “It is because only an abstract (parikappaja) object can be extended, not any other
kind, that he said, ‘it is not possible to extend a state consisting in an individual essence’”
(Vism-mhṭ 110).
33. The word “nimitta” in its technical sense is consistently rendered here by the word
“sign,” which corresponds very nearly if not exactly to most uses of it. It is sometimes
rendered by “mark” (which over-emphasizes the concrete), and by “image” (which is
not always intended). The three kinds, that is, the preliminary-work sign, learning sign
and counterpart sign, do not appear in the Piṭakas. There the use rather suggests
association of ideas as, for example, at M I 180, M I 119, A I 4, etc., than the more
definitely visualized “image” in some instances of the “counterpart sign” described in
the following chapters.
34.

Na-vattabba—”not so-classifiable” is an Abhidhamma shorthand term for

something that, when considered under one of the triads or dyads of the Abhidhamma
Mātikā (Dhs 1f.), cannot be placed under any one of the three, or two, headings.
35. “‘The festering’ is a mobile object because of the oozing of the pus, ‘the bleeding’
because of the trickling of the blood, ‘the worm-infested’ because of the wriggling of the
worms. The mobile aspect of the sunshine coming in through a window opening is
evident, which explains why an object consisting of a circle of sunlight is called mobile”
(Vism-mhṭ 110).

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Brahmā-world. But none except the four immaterial states occur in the immaterial
becoming. All occur among human beings. This is “as to plane.” [114]

119.

8. As to apprehending: here the exposition should be understood according

to the seen, the touched and the heard. Herein, these nineteen, that is to say, nine
kasiṇas omitting the air kasiṇa and the ten kinds of foulness, must be apprehended
by the seen. The meaning is that in the early stage their sign must be apprehended
by constantly looking with the eye. In the case of mindfulness occupied with the
body the five parts ending with skin must be apprehended by the seen and the rest
by the heard, so its object must be apprehended by the seen and the heard.
Mindfulness of breathing must be apprehended by the touched; the air kasiṇa by
the seen and the touched; the remaining eighteen by the heard. The divine abiding
of equanimity and the four immaterial states are not apprehendable by a beginner;
but the remaining thirty-five are. This is “as to apprehending.”

120. 9. As to condition: of these meditation subjects nine kasiṇas omitting the space
kasiṇa are conditions for the immaterial states. The ten kasiṇas are conditions for
the kinds of direct-knowledge. Three divine abidings are conditions for the fourth
divine abiding. Each lower immaterial state is a condition for each higher one. The
base consisting of neither perception nor non-perception is a condition for the
attainment of cessation. All are conditions for living in bliss, for insight, and for
the fortunate kinds of becoming. This is “as to condition.”

121. 10. As to suitability to temperament: here the exposition should be understood
according to what is suitable to the temperaments. That is to say: first, the ten
kinds of foulness and mindfulness occupied with the body are eleven meditation
subjects suitable for one of greedy temperament. The four divine abidings and
four colour kasiṇas are eight suitable for one of hating temperament. Mindfulness
of breathing is the one [recollection as a] meditation subject suitable for one of
deluded temperament and for one of speculative temperament. The first six
recollections are suitable for one of faithful temperament. Mindfulness of death,
the recollection of peace, the defining of the four elements, and the perception of
repulsiveness in nutriment, are four suitable for one of intelligent temperament.
The remaining kasiṇas and the immaterial states are suitable for all kinds of
temperament. And anyone of the kasiṇas should be limited for one of speculative
temperament and measureless for one of deluded temperament. This is how the
exposition should be understood here “as to suitability to temperament.”

122.

All this has been stated in the form of direct opposition and complete

suitability. But there is actually no profitable development that does not suppress
greed, etc., and help faith, and so on. And this is said in the Meghiya Sutta: “[One]
should, in addition,36 develop these four things: foulness should be developed for
the purpose of abandoning greed (lust). Loving-kindness should be developed for

36. “In addition to the five things” (not quoted) dealt with earlier in the sutta, namely,
perfection of virtue, good friendship, hearing suitable things, energy, and understanding.
37.

“‘Cryptic books’: the meditation-subject books dealing with the truths, the

dependent origination, etc., which are profound and associated with voidness” (Vism-
mhṭ 111). Cf. M-a II 264, A-a commentary to AN 4:180.

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the purpose of abandoning ill will. [115] Mindfulness of breathing should be
developed for the purpose of cutting off applied thought. Perception of
impermanence should be cultivated for the purpose of eliminating the conceit, ‘I
am’” (A IV 358). Also in the Rāhula Sutta, in the passage beginning, “Develop
loving-kindness, Rāhula” (M I 424), seven meditation subjects are given for a single
temperament. So instead of insisting on the mere letter, the intention should be
sought in each instance.

This is the explanatory exposition of the meditation subject referred to by the

words he should apprehend…one [meditation subject] (§28).

123.

Now the words and he should apprehend are illustrated as follows. After

approaching the good friend of the kind described in the explanation of the words
then approach the good friend, the giver of a meditation subject (§28 and §57–73), the
meditator should dedicate himself to the Blessed One, the Enlightened One, or to
a teacher, and he should ask for the meditation subject with a sincere inclination
[of the heart] and sincere resolution.

124. Herein, he should dedicate himself to the Blessed One, the Enlightened One,
in this way: “Blessed One, I relinquish this my person to you.” For without having
thus dedicated himself, when living in a remote abode he might be unable to stand
fast if a frightening object made its appearance, and he might return to a village
abode, become associated with laymen, take up improper search and come to ruin.
But when he has dedicated himself in this way no fear arises in him if a frightening
object makes its appearance; in fact only joy arises in him as he reflects: “Have you
not wisely already dedicated yourself to the Enlightened One?”

125.

Suppose a man had a fine piece of Kāsi cloth. He would feel grief if it were

eaten by rats or moths; but if he gave it to a bhikkhu needing robes, he would feel
only joy if he saw the bhikkhu tearing it up [to make his patched cloak]. And so it
is with this.

126.

When he dedicates himself to a teacher, he should say: “I relinquish this my

person to you, venerable sir.” For one who has not dedicated his person thus
becomes unresponsive to correction, hard to speak to, and unamenable to advice,
or he goes where he likes without asking the teacher. Consequently the teacher
does not help him with either material things or the Dhamma, and he does not
train him in the cryptic books.37 Failing to get these two kinds of help, [116] he
finds no footing in the Dispensation, and he soon comes down to misconducting
himself or to the lay state. But if he has dedicated his person, he is not unresponsive
to correction, does not go about as he likes, is easy to speak to, and lives only in
dependence on the teacher. He gets the twofold help from the teacher and attains
growth, increase, and fulfilment in the Dispensation. Like the Elder Cūḷa-
Piṇḍapātika-Tissa’s pupils.

127. Three bhikkhus came to the elder, it seems. One of them said, “Venerable sir,
I am ready to fall from a cliff the height of one hundred men, if it is said to be to
your advantage.” The second said, “Venerable sir, I am ready to grind away this
body from the heels up without remainder on a flat stone, if it is said to be to your
advantage.” The third said, “Venerable sir, I am ready to die by stopping breathing,

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if it is said to be to your advantage.” Observing, “These bhikkhus are certainly
capable of progress,” the elder expounded a meditation subject to them. Following
his advice, the three attained Arahantship.

This is the benefit in self-dedication. Hence it was said above “dedicating himself

to the Blessed One, the Enlightened One, or to a teacher.”

128.

With a sincere inclination [of the heart] and sincere resolution (§ 123): the

meditator’s inclination should be sincere in the six modes beginning with non-
greed. For it is one of such sincere inclination who arrives at one of the three kinds
of enlightenment, according as it is said: “Six kinds of inclination lead to the
maturing of the enlightenment of the Bodhisattas. With the inclination to non-
greed, Bodhisattas see the fault in greed. With the inclination to non-hate,
Bodhisattas see the fault in hate. With the inclination to non-delusion, Bodhisattas
see the fault in delusion. With the inclination to renunciation, Bodhisattas see the
fault in house life. With the inclination to seclusion, Bodhisattas see the fault in
society. With the inclination to relinquishment, Bodhisattas see the fault in all kinds
of becoming and destiny (Source untraced.)” For stream-enterers, once-returners,
non-returners, those with cankers destroyed (i.e. Arahants), Paccekabuddhas, and
Fully Enlightened Ones, whether past, future or present, all arrive at the distinction
peculiar to each by means of these same six modes. That is why he should have
sincerity of inclination in these six modes.

129.

He should be whole-heartedly resolved on that. The meaning is [117] that

he should be resolved upon concentration, respect concentration, incline to
concentration, be resolved upon Nibbāna, respect Nibbāna, incline to Nibbāna.

130. When, with sincerity of inclination and whole-hearted resolution in this way,
he asks for a meditation subject, then a teacher who has acquired the penetration
of minds can know his temperament by surveying his mental conduct; and a teacher
who has not can know it by putting such questions to him as: “What is your
temperament?” or “What states are usually present in you?” or “What do you like
bringing to mind?” or “What meditation subject does your mind favour?” When
he knows, he can expound a meditation subject suitable to that temperament. And
in doing so, he can expound it in three ways: it can be expounded to one who has
already learnt the meditation subject by having him recite it at one or two sessions;
it can be expounded to one who lives in the same place each time he comes; and to
one who wants to learn it and then go elsewhere it can be expounded in such a
manner that it is neither too brief nor too long.

131.

Herein, when first he is explaining the earth kasiṇa, there are nine aspects

that he should explain. They are the four faults of the kasiṇa, the making of a
kasiṇa, the method of development for one who has made it, the two kinds of sign,
the two kinds of concentration, the seven kinds of suitable and unsuitable, the ten
kinds of skill in absorption, evenness of energy, and the directions for absorption.

In the case of the other meditation subjects, each should be expounded in the

way appropriate to it. All this will be made clear in the directions for development.
But when the meditation subject is being expounded in this way, the meditator
must apprehend the sign as he listens.

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132.

Apprehend the sign means that he must connect each aspect thus: “This is the

preceding clause, this is the subsequent clause, this is its meaning, this is its
intention, this is the simile.” When he listens attentively, apprehending the sign in
this way, his meditation subject is well apprehended. Then, and because of that, he
successfully attains distinction, but not otherwise. This clarifies the meaning of
the words “and he must apprehend.”

133. At this point the clauses approach the good friend, the giver of a meditation

subject, and he should apprehend from among the forty meditation subjects one
that suits his own temperament (§28) have been expounded in detail in all their
aspects.

The third chapter called “The Description of Taking a
Meditation Subject” in the Treatise on the Development of
Concentration in the Path of Purification composed for the
purpose of gladdening good people.