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(Anussati-kammaṭṭhāna-niddesa)
[(7) MINDFULNESS OF DEATH]
1. [229] Now comes the description of the development of mindfulness of death,
which was listed next (III.105).
[Definitions]
Herein, death (maraṇa) is the interruption of the life faculty included within [the
limits of] a single becoming (existence). But death as termination (cutting off), in
other words, the Arahant’s termination of the suffering of the round, is not
intended here, nor is momentary death, in other words, the momentary dissolution
of formations, nor the “death” of conventional (metaphorical) usage in such
expressions as “dead tree,” “dead metal,” and so on.
2. As intended here it is of two kinds, that is to say, timely death and untimely
death. Herein, timely death comes about with the exhaustion of merit or with the
exhaustion of a life span or with both. Untimely death comes about through
kamma that interrupts [other, life-producing] kamma.
3. Herein, death through exhaustion of merit is a term for the kind of death that
comes about owing to the result of [former] rebirth-producing kamma’s having
finished ripening although favourable conditions for prolonging the continuity
of a life span may be still present. Death through exhaustion of a life span is a term
for the kind of death that comes about owing to the exhaustion of the normal life
span of men of today, which measures only a century owing to want of such
excellence in destiny [as deities have] or in time [as there is at the beginning of
an aeon] or in nutriment [as the Uttarakurus and so on have].1 Untimely death is
a term for the death of those whose continuity is interrupted by kamma capable
of causing them to fall (cāvana) from their place at that very moment, as in the
case of Dūsi-Māra (see M I 337), Kalāburājā (see J-a III 39), etc.,2 or for the death
of those whose [life’s] continuity is interrupted by assaults with weapons, etc.,
due to previous kamma. [230] All these are included under the interruption of
1.
Amplifications are from Vism-mhṭ, p. 236.
2.
“The word ‘etc.’ includes Nanda-yakkha, Nanda-māṇava, and others” (Vism-mhṭ
236). See A-a II 104, and M-a IV 8.
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the life faculty of the kinds already stated. So mindfulness of death is the
remembering of death, in other words, of the interruption of the life faculty.
[Development]
4. One who wants to develop this should go into solitary retreat and exercise
attention wisely in this way: “Death will take place; the life faculty will be
interrupted,” or “Death, death.”
5. If he exercises his attention unwisely in recollecting the [possible] death of
an agreeable person, sorrow arises, as in a mother on recollecting the death of
her beloved child she bore; and gladness arises in recollecting the death of a
disagreeable person, as in enemies on recollecting the death of their enemies;
and no sense of urgency arises on recollecting the death of neutral people, as
happens in a corpse-burner on seeing a dead body; and anxiety arises on
recollecting one’s own death, as happens in a timid person on seeing a murderer
with a poised dagger.
6. In all that there is neither mindfulness nor sense of urgency nor knowledge. So
he should look here and there at beings that have been killed or have died, and
advert to the death of beings already dead but formerly seen enjoying good things,
doing so with mindfulness, with a sense of urgency and with knowledge, after
which he can exercise his attention in the way beginning, “Death will take place.”
By so doing he exercises it wisely. He exercises it as a [right] means, is the meaning.3
7. When some exercise it merely in this way, their hindrances get suppressed,
their mindfulness becomes established with death as its object, and the meditation
subject reaches access.
[Eight Ways of Recollecting Death]
8. But one who finds that it does not get so far should do his recollecting of
death in eight ways, that is to say: (1) as having the appearance of a murderer, (2)
as the ruin of success, (3) by comparison, (4) as to sharing the body with many,
(5) as to the frailty of life, (6) as signless, (7) as to the limitedness of the extent, (8)
as to the shortness of the moment.
9. 1. Herein, as having the appearance of a murderer: he should do his recollecting
thus, “Just as a murderer appears with a sword, thinking, ‘I shall cut this man’s
head off,’ and applies it to his neck, so death appears.” Why? Because it comes
with birth and it takes away life.
10. As budding toadstools always come up lifting dust on their tops, so beings
are born along with aging and death. For accordingly their rebirth-linking
consciousness reaches aging immediately next to its arising and then breaks
up together with its associated aggregates, like a stone that falls from the summit
of a rock. [231] So to begin with, momentary death comes along with birth. But
death is inevitable for what is born; consequently the kind of death intended
here also comes along with birth.
3.
For the expression upāya-manasikāra—“attention as a [right] means” see M-a I 64.
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11.
Therefore, just as the risen sun moves on towards its setting and never
turns back even for a little while from wherever it has got to, or just as a mountain
torrent sweeps by with a rapid current, ever flowing and rushing on and never
turning back even for a little while, so too this living being travels on towards
death from the time when he is born, and he never turns back even for a little
while. Hence it is said:
“Right from the very day a man
Has been conceived inside a womb
He cannot but go on and on,
Nor going can he once turn back” (J-a IV 494).
12.
And whilst he goes on thus death is as near to him as drying up is to
rivulets in the summer heat, as falling is to the fruits of trees when the sap
reaches their attachments in the morning, as breaking is to clay pots tapped by
a mallet, as vanishing is to dewdrops touched by the sun’s rays. Hence it is said:
“The nights and days go slipping by
As life keeps dwindling steadily
Till mortals’ span, like water pools
In failing rills, is all used up” (S I 109).
“As there is fear, when fruits are ripe,
That in the morning they will fall,
So mortals are in constant fear,
When they are born, that they will die.
And as the fate of pots of clay
Once fashioned by the potter’s hand,
Or small or big or baked or raw,4
Condemns them to be broken up,
So mortals’ life leads but to death” (Sn p. 576f.).
“The dewdrop on the blade of grass
Vanishes when the sun comes up;
Such is a human span of life;
So, mother, do not hinder me” (J-a IV 122).
13. So this death, which comes along with birth, is like a murderer with poised
sword. And like the murderer who applies the sword to the neck, it carries off life
and never returns to bring it back. [232] That is why, since death appears like a
murderer with poised sword owing to its coming along with birth and carrying
off life, it should be recollected as “having the appearance of a murderer.”
14.
2. As the ruin of success: here success shines as long as failure does not
overcome it. And the success does not exist that might endure out of reach of
failure. Accordingly:
“He gave with joy a hundred millions
After conquering all the earth,
Till in the end his realm came down
4.
This line is not in the Sutta-nipāta, but see D II 120, note.
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To less than half a gall-nut’s worth.
Yet when his merit was used up,
His body breathing its last breath,
The Sorrowless Asoka too5
Felt sorrow face to face with death.”
15.
Furthermore, all health ends in sickness, all youth ends in aging, all life
ends in death; all worldly existence is procured by birth, haunted by aging,
surprised by sickness, and struck down by death. Hence it is said:
“As though huge mountains made of rock
So vast they reached up to the sky
Were to advance from every side,
Grinding beneath them all that lives,
So age and death roll over all,
Warriors, priests, merchants, and craftsmen,
The outcastes and the scavengers,
Crushing all beings, sparing none.
And here no troops of elephants,
No charioteers, no infantry,
No strategy in form of spells,
No riches, serve to beat them off” (S I 102).
This is how death should be recollected as the “ruin of success” by defining
it as death’s final ruining of life’s success.
16.
3.  By comparison: by comparing oneself to others. Herein, death should be
recollected by comparison in seven ways, that is to say: with those of great fame,
with those of great merit, with those of great strength, with those of great
supernormal power, with those of great understanding, with Paccekabuddhas,
with fully enlightened Buddhas. How? [233]
17.
Although Mahāsammata, Mandhātu, Mahāsudassana, Daḷhanemi, Nimi,6
etc.,7 were greatly famous and had a great following, and though they had
amassed enormous wealth, yet death inevitably caught up with them at length,
so how shall it not at length overtake me?
Great kings like Mahāsammata,
Whose fame did spread so mightily,
All fell into death’s power too;
What can be said of those like me?
5.
The Emperor Asoka is referred to. His name Asoka means “Sorrowless.” This
story is in the Asokāvadāna and Divyāvadāna, pp. 429–434.
6.
The references for the names here and in the following paragraphs are:
Mahāsammata (J-a III 454; II 311), Mandhātu (J-a II 311), Mahāsudassana (D II 169f.),
Daḷhanemi (D III 59f.), Nimi (J-a VI 96f.), Jotika (Vism XII.41), Jaṭila (XII.41), Ugga (A-a
I 394), Meṇḍaka (XII.41f.), Puṇṇaka (XII.42), Vāsudeva (J-a IV 81f.), Baladeva (J-a IV
81f.), Bhīmasena (J-a V 426), Yuddhiṭṭhila (J-a V 426), Cāṇura (J-a IV 81).
7.
Pabhuti—“etc.”: this meaning is not in PED; see §121.
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It should be recollected in this way, firstly, by comparison with those of great
fame.
18. How by comparison with those of great merit?
Jotika, Jaṭila, Ugga,
And Meṇḍaka, and Puṇṇaka
These, the world said, and others too,
Did live most meritoriously;
Yet they came one and all to death;
What can be said of those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison with those of great merit.
19. How by comparison with those of great strength?
Vāsudeva, Baladeva,
Bhīmasena, Yuddhiṭṭhila,
And Cāṇura the wrestler,
Were in the Exterminator’s power.
Throughout the world they were renowned
As blessed with strength so mighty;
They too went to the realm of death;
What can be said of those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison with those of great strength.
20. How by comparison with those of great supernormal power?
The second of the chief disciples,
The foremost in miraculous powers,
Who with the point of his great toe
Did rock Vejayanta’s Palace towers,
Like a deer in a lion’s jaw, he too,
Despite miraculous potency,
Fell in the dreadful jaws of death;
What can be said of those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison with those of great
supernormal power.
21. How by comparison with those of great understanding? [234]
The first of the two chief disciples
Did so excel in wisdom’s art
That, save the Helper of the World,
No being is worth his sixteenth part.
But though so great was Sāriputta’s
Understanding faculty,
He fell into death’s power too;
What can be said of those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison with those of great
understanding.
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22. How by comparison with Paccekabuddhas? Even those who by the strength
of their own knowledge and energy crushed all the enemy defilements and
reached enlightenment for themselves, who [stood alone] like the horn of the
rhinoceros (see Sn p. 35f.), who were self-perfected, were still not free from death.
So how should I be free from it?
To help them in their search for truth
The Sages various signs employed,
Their knowledge brought them self-perfection,
Their cankers were at length destroyed.
Like the rhinoceros’s horn
They lived alone in constancy,
But death they could no way evade;
What can be said of those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison with Paccekabuddhas.
23. How by comparison with fully enlightened Buddhas? Even the Blessed One,
whose material body was embellished with the eighty lesser details and adorned
with the thirty-two marks of a great man (see MN 91; DN 30), whose Dhamma
body brought to perfection the treasured qualities of the aggregates of virtue,
etc.,8 made pure in every aspect, who overpassed greatness of fame, greatness of
merit, greatness of strength, greatness of supernormal power and greatness of
understanding, who had no equal, who was the equal of those without equal,
without double, accomplished and fully enlightened—even he was suddenly
quenched by the downpour of death’s rain, as a great mass of fire is quenched by
the downpour of a rain of water.
And so the Greatest Sage possessed
Such mighty power in every way,
And it was not through fear or guilt
That over him Death held his sway.
No being, not even one without
Guilt or pusillanimity,
But will be smitten down; so how I
Will he not conquer those like me?
It should be recollected in this way by comparison with fully enlightened
Buddhas.
24.
When he does his recollecting in this way by comparing himself with
others possessed of such great fame, etc., in the light of the universality of death,
thinking, “Death will come to me even as it did to those distinguished beings,”
then his meditation subject reaches access. This is how death should be recollected
by comparison. [235]
25.
4. As to the sharing of the body with many: this body is shared by many. Firstly,
it is shared by the eighty families of worms. There too, creatures live in dependence
8.
Virtue, concentration, understanding, deliverance, knowledge, and vision of
deliverance.
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on the outer skin, feeding on the outer skin; creatures live in dependence on the
inner skin, feeding on the inner skin; creatures live in dependence on the flesh,
feeding on the flesh; creatures live in dependence on the sinews, feeding on the
sinews; creatures live in dependence on the bones, feeding on the bones; and
creatures live in dependence on the marrow, feeding on the marrow. And there
they are born, grow old and die, evacuate, and make water; and the body is their
maternity home, their hospital, their charnel-ground, their privy and their urinal.
The body can also be brought to death with the upsetting of these worms. And
just as it is shared with the eighty families of worms, so too it is shared by the
several hundred internal diseases, as well as by such external causes of death as
snakes, scorpions, and what not.
26. And just as when a target is set up at a crossroads and then arrows, spears,
pikes, stones, etc., come from all directions and fall upon it, so too all kinds of
accidents befall the body, and it also comes to death through these accidents
befalling it. Hence the Blessed One said: “Here, bhikkhus, when day is departing
and night is drawing on,9 a bhikkhu considers thus: ‘In many ways I can risk
death. A snake may bite me, or a scorpion may sting me, or a centipede may sting
me. I might die of that, and that would set me back. Or I might stumble and fall,
or the food I have eaten might disagree with me, or my bile might get upset, or my
phlegm might get upset [and sever my joints as it were] like knives. I might die of
that, and that would set me back’” (A III 306).
That is how death should be recollected as to sharing the body with many.
27.
5. As to the frailty of life: this life is impotent and frail. For the life of beings
is bound up with breathing, it is bound up with the postures, it is bound up with
cold and heat, it is bound up with the primary elements, and it is bound up with
nutriment.
28.
Life occurs only when the in-breaths and out-breaths occur evenly. But
when the wind in the nostrils that has gone outside does not go in again, or
when that which has gone inside does not come out again, then a man is
reckoned to be dead.
And it occurs only when the four postures are found occurring evenly. [236]
But with the prevailing of anyone of them the life process is interrupted.
And it occurs only when cold and heat are found occurring evenly. But it fails
when a man is overcome by excessive cold or heat.
And it occurs only when the four primary elements are found occurring
evenly. But with the disturbance of the earth element even a strong man’s life can
be terminated if his body becomes rigid, or with the disturbance of one of the
elements beginning with water if his body becomes flaccid and petrified with a
flux of the bowels, etc., or if he is consumed by a bad fever, or if he suffers a
severing of his limb-joint ligatures (cf. XI.102).
9. Paṭihitāya—“drawing on”: not in PED; Vism-mhṭ (p. 240) reads paṇitāya and explains
by paccāgatāya (come back).
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And life occurs only in one who gets physical nutriment at the proper time;
but if he gets none, he uses his life up.
This is how death should be recollected as to the frailty of life.
29.
6. As signless: as indefinable. The meaning is that it is unpredictable. For in
the case of all beings:
The span, the sickness, and the time, and where
The body will be laid, the destiny:
The living world can never know10 these things;
There is no sign foretells when they will be.
30. Herein, firstly the span has no sign because there is no definition such as:
Just so much must be lived, no more than that. For beings [die in the various
stages of the embryo, namely], at the time of the kalala, of the abbuda, of the pesi, of
the ghana, at one month gone, two months gone, three months gone, four months
gone, five months gone … ten months gone, and on the occasion of coming out
of the womb. And after that they die this side or the other of the century.
31. And the sickness has no sign because there is no definition such as: Beings
die only of this sickness, not of any other. For beings die of eye disease or of any
one among those beginning with ear disease (see A V 110).
32. And the time has no sign because there is no definition such as: One has to
die only at this time, not at any other. For beings die in the morning and at any of
the other times such as noon.
33.
And  where the body will be laid down has no sign because there is no
definition such as: When people die, they must drop their bodies only here, not
anywhere else. For the person of those born inside a village is dropped outside
the village, and that of those born outside the village is dropped inside it. Likewise
that of those born in water is dropped on land, and that of those born on land in
water. And this can be multiplied in many ways. [237]
34. And  the destiny has no sign because there is no definition such as: One who
dies there must be reborn here. For there are some who die in a divine world and are
reborn in the human world, and there are some who die in the human world and are
reborn in a divine world, and so on. And in this way the world goes round and
round the five kinds of destinies like an ox harnessed to a machine.
This is how death should be recollected as signless.
35.
7. As to the limitedness of the extent: the extent of human life is short now. One
who lives long lives a hundred years, more or less. Hence the Blessed One said:
“Bhikkhus, this human life span is short. There is a new life to be gone to, there
are profitable [deeds] to be done, there is the life of purity to be led. There is no
not dying for the born. He who lives long lives a hundred years, more or less …”
“The life of humankind is short;
A wise man holds it in contempt
And acts as one whose head is burning;
Death will never fail to come” (S I 108).
10. Nāyare—“can know”: form not in PED; Vism-mhṭ explains by ñāyanti.
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And he said further: “Bhikkhus, there was once a teacher called Araka …” (A
IV 136), all of which sutta should be given in full, adorned as it is with seven
similes.
36. And he said further: “Bhikkhus, when a bhikkhu develops mindfulness of
death thus, ‘Oh, let me live a night and day that I may attend to the Blessed One’s
teaching, surely much could be done by me,’ and when a bhikkhu develops
mindfulness of death thus, ‘Oh, let me live a day that I may attend to the Blessed
One’s teaching, surely much could be done by me,’ and when a bhikkhu develops
mindfulness of death thus, ‘Oh, let me live as long as it takes to chew and
swallow four or five mouthfuls that I may attend to the Blessed One’s teaching,
surely much could be done by me’—these are called bhikkhus who dwell in
negligence and slackly develop mindfulness of death for the destruction of
cankers. [238]
37.
“And, bhikkhus, when a bhikkhu develops mindfulness of death thus,
‘Oh, let me live for as long as it takes to chew and swallow a single mouthful that
I may attend to the Blessed One’s teaching, surely much could be done by me,’
and when a bhikkhu develops mindfulness of death thus, ‘Oh, let me live as
long as it takes to breathe in and breathe out, or as long as it takes to breathe out
and breathe in, that I may attend to the Blessed One’s teaching, surely much
could be done by me’—these are called bhikkhus who dwell in diligence and
keenly develop mindfulness of death for the destruction of cankers” (A III 305–6).
38. So short in fact is the extent of life that it is not certain even for as long as it
takes to chew and swallow four or five mouthfuls.
This is how death should be recollected as to the limitedness of the extent.
39.
8. As to the shortness of the moment: in the ultimate sense the life-moment of
living beings is extremely short, being only as much as the occurrence of a
single conscious moment. Just as a chariot wheel, when it is rolling, rolls [that
is, touches the ground] only on one point of [the circumference of] its tire, and,
when it is at rest, rests only on one point, so too, the life of living beings lasts
only for a single conscious moment. When that consciousness has ceased, the
being is said to have ceased, according as it is said: “In a past conscious moment
he did live, not he does live, not he will live. In a future conscious moment not he
did live, not he does live, he will live. In the present conscious moment not he did
live, he does live, not he will live.”
“Life, person, pleasure, pain—just these alone
Join in one conscious moment that flicks by.
Ceased aggregates of those dead or alive
Are all alike, gone never to return.
No [world is] born if [consciousness is] not
Produced; when that is present, then it lives;
When consciousness dissolves, the world is dead:
The highest sense this concept will allow”11 (Nidd I 42).
11. “‘Person’ (atta-bhāva) is the states other than the already-mentioned life, feeling
and consciousness. The words ‘just these alone’ mean that it is unmixed with self (attā)
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or permanence” (Vism-mhṭ 242). Atta-bhāva as used in the Suttas and in this work is
more or less a synonym for sakkāya in the sense of person (body and mind) or
personality, or individual form. See Piṭaka refs. in PED and e.g. this chapter §35 and
XI.54.
“‘When consciousness dissolves, the world is dead”: just as in the case of the death-
consciousness, this world is also called ‘dead’ in the highest (ultimate) sense with the
arrival of any consciousness whatever at its dissolution, since its cessation has no
rebirth-linking (is ‘cessation never to return’). Nevertheless, though this is so, ‘the
highest sense this concept will allow  (paññatti paramatthiyā)’—the ultimate sense will
allow this concept of continuity, which is what the expression of common usage ‘Tissa
lives, Phussa lives’ refers to, and which is based on consciousnesses [momentarily]
existing along with a physical support; this belongs to the ultimate sense here, since,
as they say, ‘It is not the name and surname that lives.’” (Vism-mhṭ 242, 801)
Something may be said about the word paññatti here. Twenty-four kinds are dealt
with in the commentary to the Puggalapaññatti. The Puggalapaññatti Schedule (mātikā)
gives the following six paññatti (here a making known, a setting out): of aggregates,
bases, elements, truths, faculties, and persons. (Pug 1) The commentary explains the
word in this sense as paññāpana (making known) and ṭhapana (placing), quoting “He
announces, teaches, declares (paññāpeti), establishes” (cf. M III 248), and also “a well-
appointed (supaññatta) bed and chair” (?). It continues: “The making known of a name
(nāma-paññatti) shows such and such dhammas and places them in such and such
compartments, while the making known of the aggregates (khandha-paññatti) and the
rest shows in brief the individual form of those making-known (paññatti).”
It then gives six kinds of paññatti “according to the commentarial method but not
in the texts”: (1) Concept of the existent (vijjamāna-paññatti), which is the conceptualizing
of (making known) a dhamma that is existent, actual, become, in the true and ultimate
sense (e.g. aggregates, etc.). (2) Concept of the non-existent, which is, for example, the
conceptualizing of “female,” “male,” “persons,” etc., which are non-existent by that
standard and are only established by means of current speech in the world; similarly
“such impossibilities as concepts of a fifth truth or the other sectarians’ Atom,
Primordial Essence, World Soul, and the like.” (3) Concept of the non-existent based on
the existent, e.g. the expression, “One with the three clear-visions,” where the “person”
(“one”) is nonexistent and the “clear-visions” are existent. (4) Concept of the existent
based on the non-existent, e.g. the “female form,” “visible form” (= visible datum base)
being existent and “female” non-existent. (5) Concept of the existent based on the
existent, e.g. “eye-contact,” both “eye” and “contact” being existent. (6) Concept of the
non-existent based on the non-existent, e.g. “banker’s son,” both being non-existent.
Again two more sets of six are given as “according to the Teachers, but not in the
Commentaries.” The first is: (1) Derivative concept (upādā-paññatti); this, for instance,
is a “being,” which is a convention derived from the aggregates of materiality, feeling,
etc., though it has no individual essence of its own apprehendable in the true ultimate
sense, as materiality, say, has in its self-identity and its otherness from feeling, etc.; or
a “house” or a “fist” or an “oven” as apart from its component parts, or a “pitcher” or
a “garment,” which are all derived from those same aggregates; or “time” or
“direction,” which are derived from the revolutions of the moon and sun; or the
“learning sign” or “counterpart sign” founded on some aspect or other, which are a
convention derived from some real sign as a benefit of meditative development: these
are derived concepts, and this kind is a “concept” (paññatti) in the sense of “ability to
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This is how death should be recollected as to the shortness of the moment.
[Conclusion]
40. So while he does his recollecting by means of one or other of these eight
ways, his consciousness acquires [the support of] repetition owing to the
reiterated attention, mindfulness settles down with death as its object, the
hindrances are suppressed, and the jhāna factors make their appearance. But
since the object is stated with individual essences,12 and since it awakens a sense
of urgency, the jhāna does not reach absorption and is only access. [239] Now,
with special development, the supramundane jhāna and the second and the
fourth immaterial jhānas reach absorption even with respect to states with
individual essences. For the supramundane reaches absorption by means of
be set up” (paññāpetabba = ability to be conceptualized), but not in the sense of “making
known” (paññāpana). Under the latter heading this would be a “concept of the
nonexistent.” (2) Appositional concept (upa-nidhā-p.): many varieties are listed, namely,
apposition of reference (“second” as against “first,” “third” as against “second,”
“long” as against “short”); apposition of what is in the hand (“umbrella-in-hand,”
“knife-in-hand”); apposition of association (“earring-wearer,” “topknot-wearer,”
“crest-wearer”); apposition of contents (“corn-wagon,” “ghee-pot”); apposition of
proximity (“Indasālā Cave,” “Piyaṅgu Cave”); apposition of comparison (“golden
coloured,” “with a bull’s gait”); apposition of majority (“Padumassara-brahman
Village”); apposition of distinction (“diamond ring”); and so on. (3) Collective concept
(samodhāna-p.), e.g., “eight-footed,” “pile of riches.” (4) Additive concept (upanikkhitta-
p.), e.g. “one,” “two,” “three.” (5) Verisimilar concept (tajjā-p.): refers to the individual
essence of a given dhamma, e.g. “earth,” “fire,” “hardness,” “heat.” (6) Continuity
concept  (santati-p.): refers to the length of continuity of life, e.g. “octogenarian,”
“nonagenarian.”
In the second set there are: (i) Concept according to function (kicca-p.), e.g. “preacher,”
“expounder of Dhamma.” (ii) Concept according to shape (saṇṭhāna-p.), e.g. “thin,” “stout,”
“round,” “square.” (iii) Concept according to gender (liṅga-p.), e.g. “female,” “male.” (iv)
Concept according to location (bhūmi-p.), e.g. “of the sense sphere,” “Kosalan.” (v) Concept
as proper name (paccatta-p.), e.g. “Tissa,” “Nāga,” “Sumana,” which are making-known
(appellations) by mere name-making. (vi) Concept of the unformed (asaṅkhata-paññatti),
e.g. “cessation,” “Nibbāna,” etc., which make the unformed dhamma known—an
existent concept. (From commentary to Puggalapaññatti, condensed—see also Dhs-a
390f.)
All this shows that the word paññatti carries the meanings of either appellation or
concept or both together, and that no English word quite corresponds.
12. “‘But since the object is stated with individual essences’: the breakup of states
with individual essences, their destruction, their fall—[all] that has to do only with
states with individual essences. Hence the Blessed One said: ‘Bhikkhus, aging-and-
death is impermanent, formed, dependently arisen’ (S II 26). … If it cannot reach
absorption because of [its object being] states with individual essences then what
about the supramundane jhānas and certain of the immaterial jhānas? It was to answer
this that he said ‘now with special development the supramundane jhāna’ and so on”
(Vism-mhṭ 243). Kasiṇa jhāna, for example, has a concept (paññatti) as its object
(IV.29) and a concept is a dhamma without individual essence (asabhāva-dhamma).
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progressive development of the purification and the immaterial jhānas do so by
means of development consisting in the surmounting of the object (see Ch. X)
since there [in those two immaterial jhānas] there is merely the surmounting of
the object of jhāna that had already reached absorption. But here [in mundane
mindfulness of death] there is neither so the jhāna only reaches access. And that
access is known as “mindfulness of death” too since it arises through its means.
41.
A bhikkhu devoted to mindfulness of death is constantly diligent. He
acquires perception of disenchantment with all kinds of becoming (existence).
He conquers attachment to life. He condemns evil. He avoids much storing. He
has no stain of avarice about requisites. Perception of impermanence grows in
him, following upon which there appear the perceptions of pain and not-self.
But while beings who have not developed [mindfulness of] death fall victims to
fear, horror and confusion at the time of death as though suddenly seized by
wild beasts, spirits, snakes, robbers, or murderers, he dies undeluded and fearless
without falling into any such state. And if he does not attain the deathless here
and now, he is at least headed for a happy destiny on the breakup of the body.
Now, when a man is truly wise,
His constant task will surely be
This recollection about death
Blessed with such mighty potency.
This is the section dealing with the recollection of death in the detailed
explanation.
[(8) MINDFULNESS OCCUPIED WITH THE BODY]
42.
Now comes the description of the development of mindfulness occupied
with the body as a meditation subject, which is never promulgated except after
an Enlightened One’s arising, and is outside the province of any sectarians. It
has been commended by the Blessed One in various ways in different suttas
thus: “Bhikkhus, when one thing is developed and repeatedly practiced, it leads
to a supreme sense of urgency, to supreme benefit, to supreme surcease of bondage,
to supreme mindfulness and full awareness, to acquisition of knowledge and
vision, to a happy life here and now, to realization of the fruit of clear vision and
deliverance. What is that one thing? It is mindfulness occupied with the body”
(A I 43). And thus: “Bhikkhus, they savour the deathless who savour mindfulness
occupied with the body; they do not savour the deathless who do not savour
mindfulness occupied with the body.13 [240] They have savoured the deathless
who have savoured mindfulness occupied with the body; they have not savoured
… They have neglected … they have not neglected … They have missed … they
have found the deathless who have found mindfulness occupied with the body”
(A I 45). And it has been described in fourteen sections in the passage beginning,
“And how developed, bhikkhus, how repeatedly practiced is mindfulness
occupied with the body of great fruit, of great benefit? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu,
gone to the forest …” (M III 89), that is to say, the sections on breathing, on
13. In the Aṅguttara text the negative and positive clauses are in the opposite order.
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postures, on the four kinds of full awareness, on attention directed to
repulsiveness, on attention directed to elements, and on the nine charnel-ground
contemplations.
43. Herein, the three, that is to say, the sections on postures, on the four kinds of
full awareness (see M-a I 253f.), and on attention directed to elements, as they are
stated [in that sutta], deal with insight. Then the nine sections on the charnel-
ground contemplations, as stated there, deal with that particular phase of insight
knowledge called contemplation of danger. And any development of
concentration in the bloated, etc., that might be implied there has already been
explained in the Description of Foulness (Ch. VI). So there are only the two, that
is, the sections on breathing and on directing attention to repulsiveness, that, as
stated there, deal with concentration. Of these two, the section on breathing is a
separate meditation subject, namely, mindfulness of breathing.
[Text]
44. What is intended here as mindfulness occupied with the body is the thirty-
two aspects. This meditation subject is taught as the direction of attention to
repulsiveness thus: “Again, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu reviews this body, up from the
soles of the feet and down from the top of the hair and contained in the skin, as
full of many kinds of filth thus: In this body there are head hairs, body hairs,
nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, bone marrow, kidney, heart, liver, midriff,
spleen, lungs, bowels, entrails, gorge, dung, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat,
tears, grease, spittle, snot, oil of the joints, and urine” (M III 90), the brain being
included in the bone marrow in this version [with a total of only thirty-one aspects].
45. Here is the description of the development introduced by a commentary on
the text.
[Word Commentary]
This body: this filthy body constructed out of the four primary elements. Up from
the soles of the feet: from the soles of the feet upwards. Down from the top of the hair:
from the highest part of the hair downwards. Contained in the skin: terminated all
round by the skin. Reviews … as full of many kinds of filth: [241] he sees that this
body is packed with the filth of various kinds beginning with head hairs. How?
“In this body there are head hairs … urine.”
46.
Herein, there are means, there are found. In this: in this, which is expressed
thus: “Up from the soles of the feet and down from the top of the hair and
contained in the skin, as full of many kinds of filth.” Body: the carcass; for it is
the carcass that is called “body” (kāya) because it is a conglomeration of filth,
because such vile (kucchita) things as the head hairs, etc., and the hundred
diseases beginning with eye disease, have it as their origin (āya).
Head hairs, body hairs: these things beginning with head hairs are the thirty-
two aspects. The construction here should be understood in this way: In this
body there are head hairs, in this body there are body hairs.
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47.
No one who searches throughout the whole of this fathom-long carcass,
starting upwards from the soles of the feet, starting downwards from the top of
the head, and starting from the skin all round, ever finds even the minutest atom
at all beautiful in it, such as a pearl, or a gem, or beryl, or aloes,14 or saffron, or
camphor, or talcum powder; on the contrary he finds nothing but the various
very malodorous, offensive, drab-looking sorts of filth consisting of the head
hairs, body hairs, and the rest. Hence it is said: “In this body there are head
hairs, body hairs … urine.”
This is the commentary on the word-construction here.
[Development]
48.
Now, a clansman who, as a beginner, wants to develop this meditation
subject should go to a good friend of the kind already described (III.61–73) and
learn it. And the teacher who expounds it to him should tell him the sevenfold
skill in learning and the tenfold skill in giving attention.
[The Sevenfold Skill in Learning]
Herein, the sevenfold skill in learning should be told thus: (1) as verbal recitation,
(2) as mental recitation, (3) as to colour, (4) as to shape, (5) as to direction, (6) as
to location, (7) as to delimitation.
49.
1. This meditation subject consists in giving attention to repulsiveness.
Even if one is master of the Tipiṭaka, the verbal recitation should still be done at
the time of first giving it attention. For the meditation subject only becomes
evident to some through recitation, as it did to the two elders who learned the
meditation subject from the Elder Mahā Deva of the Hill Country (Malaya). On
being asked for the meditation subject, it seems, the elder [242] gave the text of
the thirty-two aspects, saying, “Do only this recitation for four months.”
Although they were familiar respectively with two and three Piṭakas, it was only
at the end of four months of recitation of the meditation subject that they became
stream-enterers, with right apprehension [of the text]. So the teacher who expounds
the meditation subject should tell the pupil to do the recitation verbally first.
50. Now, when he does the recitation, he should divide it up into the “skin
pentad,” etc., and do it forwards and backwards. After saying “Head hairs,
body hairs, nails, teeth, skin,” he should repeat it backwards, “Skin, teeth, nails,
body hairs, head hairs.”
51. Next to that, with the “kidney pentad,” after saying “Flesh, sinews, bones,
bone marrow, kidney,” he should repeat it backwards, “Kidney, bone marrow,
bones, sinews, flesh; skin, teeth, nails, body hairs, head hairs.”
52. Next, with the “lungs pentad,” after saying “Heart, liver, midriff, spleen,
lungs,” he should repeat it backwards, “Lungs, spleen, midriff, liver, heart; kidney,
bone marrow, bones, sinews, flesh; skin, teeth, nails, body hairs, head hairs.”
14. Agaru—“aloes”: not so spelled in PED; but see agalu.
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53. Next, with the “brain pentad,” after saying “Bowels, entrails, gorge, dung,
brain,” he should repeat it backwards, “Brain, dung, gorge, entrails, bowels;
lungs, spleen, midriff, liver, heart; kidney, bone marrow, bones, sinews, flesh;
skin, teeth, nails, body hairs, head hairs.”
54. Next, with the “fat sextad,” after saying “Bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat,
fat,” he should repeat it backwards, “Fat, sweat, blood, pus, phlegm, bile; brain,
dung, gorge, entrails, bowels; lungs, spleen, midriff, liver, heart; kidney, bone
marrow, bones, sinews, flesh; skin, teeth, nails, body hairs, head hairs.”
55. Next, with the “urine sextad,” after saying “Tears, grease, spittle, snot, oil
of the joints, urine,” he should repeat it backwards, “Urine, oil of the joints, snot,
spittle, grease, tears; fat, sweat, blood, pus, phlegm, bile; brain, dung, gorge,
entrails, bowels; lungs, spleen, midriff, liver, heart; kidney, bone marrow, bones,
sinews, flesh; skin, teeth, nails, body hairs, head hairs.” [243]
56.
The recitation should be done verbally in this way a hundred times, a
thousand times, even a hundred thousand times. For it is through verbal recitation
that the meditation subject becomes familiar, and the mind being thus prevented
from running here and there, the parts become evident and seem like [the fingers
of] a pair of clasped hands,15 like a row of fence posts.
57. 2.  The  mental recitation should be done just as it is done verbally. For the
verbal recitation is a condition for the mental recitation, and the mental recitation
is a condition for the penetration of the characteristic [of foulness].16
58. 3. As to colour: the colour of the head hairs, etc., should be defined.
4. As to shape: their shape should be defined too.
5. As to direction: in this body, upwards from the navel is the upward direction,
and downwards from it is the downward direction. So the direction should be
defined thus: “This part is in this direction.”
6. As to location: the location of this or that part should be defined thus: “This
part is established in this location.”
59.
7. As to delimitation: there are two kinds of delimitation, that is, delimitation
of the similar and delimitation of the dissimilar. Herein, delimitation of the
similar should be understood in this way: “This part is delimited above and
below and around by this.” Delimitation of the dissimilar should be understood
as non-intermixed-ness in this way: “Head hairs are not body hairs, and body
hairs are not head hairs.”
60. When the teacher tells the skill in learning in seven ways thus, he should
do so knowing that in certain suttas this meditation subject is expounded from
the point of view of repulsiveness and in certain suttas from the point of view of
elements. For in the Mahā Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (DN 22) it is expounded only as
repulsiveness. In the Mahā Hatthipadopama Sutta (MN 28), in the Mahā
15.
Hatthasaṅkhalikā—“the fingers of a pair of clasped hands,” “a row of fingers
(aṅgulīpanti) (Vism-mhṭ 246).
16.
“For the penetration of the characteristic of foulness, for the observation of
repulsiveness as the individual essence” (Vism-mhṭ 246).
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Rāhulovāda Sutta (MN 62), and the Dhātuvibhaṅga (MN 140, also Vibh 82), it
is expounded as elements. In the Kāyagatāsati Sutta (MN 119), however, four
jhānas are expounded with reference to one to whom it has appeared as a
colour [kasiṇa] (see III.107). Herein, it is an insight meditation subject that is
expounded as elements and a serenity meditation subject that is expounded as
repulsiveness. Consequently it is only the serenity meditation subject [that is
relevant] here.
[The Tenfold Skill in Giving Attention]
61. Having thus told the sevenfold skill in learning, he should tell the tenfold
skill in giving attention as follows: (1) as to following the order, (2) not too
quickly, (3) not too slowly (4) as to warding off distraction, (5) as to surmounting
the concept, (6) as to successive leaving, (7) as to absorption, (8)–(10) as to the
three suttantas.
62.
1. Herein, as to following the order: from the time of beginning the recitation
[244] attention should be given following the serial order without skipping. For
just as when someone who has no skill climbs a thirty-two-rung ladder using
every other step, his body gets exhausted and he falls without completing the
climb, so too, one who gives it attention skipping [parts] becomes exhausted in
his mind and does not complete the development since he fails to get the
satisfaction that ought to be got with successful development.
63.
2. Also when he gives attention to it following the serial order, he should
do so not too quickly. For just as when a man sets out on a three-league journey,
even if he has already done the journey out and back a hundred times rapidly
without taking note of [turnings] to be taken and avoided, though he may finish
his journey, he still has to ask how to get there, so too, when the meditator gives
his attention to the meditation subject too quickly, though he may reach the end
of the meditation subject, it still does not become clear or bring about any
distinction. So he should not give his attention to it too quickly.
64.
3. And as “not too quickly,” so also not too slowly. For just as when a man
wants to do a three-league journey in one day, if he loiters on the way among
trees, rocks, pools, etc., he does not finish the journey in a day and needs two or
three to complete it, so too, if the meditator gives his attention to the meditation
subject too slowly, he does not get to the end and it does not become a condition
for distinction.
65. 4.  As to warding off distraction: he must ward off [temptation] to drop the
meditation subject and to let his mind get distracted among the variety of external
objects. For if not, just as when a man has entered on a one-foot-wide cliff path,
if he looks about here and there without watching his step, he may miss his
footing and fall down the cliff, which is perhaps as high as a hundred men, so
too, when there is outward distraction, the meditation subject gets neglected
and deteriorates. So he should give his attention to it warding off distraction.
66.
5. As to surmounting the concept: this [name-] concept beginning with “head
hairs, body hairs” must be surmounted and consciousness established on [the
aspect] “repulsive.” For just as when men find a water hole in a forest in a time
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of drought, they hang up some kind of signal there such as a palm leaf, and
people come to bathe and drink guided by the signal, [245] but when the way
has become plain with their continual traffic, there is no further need of the
signal and they go to bathe and drink there whenever they want, so too, when
repulsiveness becomes evident to him as he is giving his attention to the
meditation subject through the means of the [name-] concept “head hairs, body
hairs,” he must surmount the concept “head hairs, body hairs” and establish
consciousness on only the actual repulsiveness.
67.
6. As to successive leaving: in giving his attention he should eventually leave
out any [parts] that do not appear to him. For when a beginner gives his attention
to head hairs, his attention then carries on till it arrives at the last part, that is,
urine and stops there; and when he gives his attention to urine, his attention
then carries on till it arrives back at the first part, that is, head hairs, and stops
there. As he persists in giving his attention thus, some parts appear to him and
others do not. Then he should work on those that have appeared till one out of
any two appears the clearer. He should arouse absorption by again and again
giving attention to the one that has appeared thus.
68. Here is a simile. Suppose a hunter wanted to catch a monkey that lived in a
grove of thirty-two palms, and he shot an arrow through a leaf of the palm that
stood at the beginning and gave a shout; then the monkey went leaping
successively from palm to palm till it reached the last palm; and when the
hunter went there too and did as before, it came back in like manner to the first
palm; and being followed thus again and again, after leaping from each place
where a shout was given, it eventually jumped on to one palm, and firmly seizing
the palm shoot’s leaf spike in the middle, would not leap any more even when
shot—so it is with this.
69. The application of the simile is this. The thirty-two parts of the body are like
the thirty-two palms in the grove. The monkey is like the mind. The meditator is
like the hunter. The range of the meditator’s mind in the body with its thirty-two
parts as object is like the monkey’s inhabiting the palm grove of thirty-two
palms. The settling down of the meditator’s mind in the last part after going
successively [from part to part] when he began by giving his attention to head
hairs is like the monkey’s leaping from palm to palm and going to the last palm,
[246] when the hunter shot an arrow through the leaf of the palm where it was
and gave a shout. Likewise in the return to the beginning. His doing the
preliminary work on those parts that have appeared, leaving behind those that
did not appear while, as he gave his attention to them again and again, some
appeared to him and some did not, is like the monkey’s being followed and
leaping up from each place where a shout is given. The meditator’s repeated
attention given to the part that in the end appears the more clearly of any two
that have appeared to him and his finally reaching absorption, is like the
monkey’s eventually stopping in one palm, firmly seizing the palm shoot’s leaf
spike in the middle and not leaping up even when shot.
70.
There is another simile too. Suppose an alms-food-eater bhikkhu went to
live near a village of thirty-two families, and when he got two lots of alms at the
first house he left out one [house] beyond it, and next day, when he got three lots
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of [alms at the first house] he left out two [houses] beyond it, and on the third day
he got his bowl full at the first [house], and went to the sitting hall and ate—so it
is with this.
71. The thirty-two aspects are like the village with the thirty-two families. The
meditator is like the alms-food eater. The meditator’s preliminary work is like the
alms-food eater’s going to live near the village. The meditator’s continuing to
give attention after leaving out those parts that do not appear and doing his
preliminary work on the pair of parts that do appear is like the alms-food eater’s
getting two lots of alms at the first house and leaving out one [house] beyond it,
and like his next day getting three [lots of alms at the first house] and leaving
out two [houses] beyond it. The arousing of absorption by giving attention
again and again to that which has appeared the more clearly of two is like the
alms-food eater’s getting his bowl full at the first [house] on the third day and
then going to the sitting hall and eating.
72.
7. As to absorption: as to absorption part by part. The intention here is this:
it should be understood that absorption is brought about in each one of the
parts.
73.
8–10.  As to the three suttantas: the intention here is this: it should be
understood that the three suttantas, namely, those on higher consciousness,17 on
coolness, and on skill in the enlightenment factors, have as their purpose the
linking of energy with concentration.
74.
8.  Herein, this sutta should be understood to deal with higher
consciousness: “Bhikkhus, there are three signs that should be given attention
from time to time by a bhikkhu intent on higher consciousness. The sign of
concentration should be given attention from time to time, the sign of exertion
should be given attention from time to time, the sign of equanimity should be
given attention from time to time. [247] If a bhikkhu intent on higher
consciousness gives attention only to the sign of concentration, then his
consciousness may conduce to idleness. If a bhikkhu intent on higher
consciousness gives attention only to the sign of exertion, then his consciousness
may conduce to agitation. If a bhikkhu intent on higher consciousness gives
attention only to the sign of equanimity, then his consciousness may not become
rightly concentrated for the destruction of cankers. But, bhikkhus, when a bhikkhu
intent on higher consciousness gives attention from time to time to the sign of
concentration … to the sign of exertion … to the sign of equanimity, then his
consciousness becomes malleable, wieldy and bright, it is not brittle and becomes
rightly concentrated for the destruction of cankers.
75. “Bhikkhus, just as a skilled goldsmith or goldsmith’s apprentice prepares
his furnace and heats it up and puts crude gold into it with tongs; and he blows
on it from time to time, sprinkles water on it from time to time, and looks on at it
from time to time; and if the goldsmith or goldsmith’s apprentice only blew on
the crude gold, it would burn and if he only sprinkled water on it, it would cool
down, and if he only looked on at it, it would not get rightly refined; but, when
17. “The higher consciousness” is a term for jhāna.
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the goldsmith or goldsmith’s apprentice blows on the crude gold from time to
time, sprinkles water on it from time to time, and looks on at it from time to time,
then it becomes malleable, wieldy and bright, it is not brittle, and it submits
rightly to being wrought; whatever kind of ornament he wants to work it into,
whether a chain or a ring or a necklace or a gold fillet, it serves his purpose.
76. “So too, bhikkhus, there are three signs that should be given attention from
time to time by a bhikkhu intent on higher consciousness … becomes rightly
concentrated for the destruction of cankers. [248] He attains the ability to be a
witness, through realization by direct-knowledge, of any state realizable by
direct-knowledge to which he inclines his mind, whenever there is occasion” (A
I 256–58).18
77.
9. This sutta deals with coolness: “Bhikkhus, when a bhikkhu possesses
six things, he is able to realize the supreme coolness. What six? Here, bhikkhus,
when consciousness should be restrained, he restrains it; when consciousness
should be exerted, he exerts it; when consciousness should be encouraged, he
encourages it; when consciousness should be looked on at with equanimity, he
looks on at it with equanimity. He is resolute on the superior [state to be attained],
he delights in Nibbāna. Possessing these six things a bhikkhu is able to realize
the supreme coolness” (A III 435).
78.
10. Skill in the enlightenment factors has already been dealt with in the
explanation of skill in absorption (IV.51, 57) in the passage beginning,
“Bhikkhus, when the mind is slack, that is not the time for developing the
tranquillity enlightenment factor …” (S V 113).
79. So the meditator should make sure that he has apprehended this sevenfold
skill in learning well and has properly defined this tenfold skill in giving
attention, thus learning the meditation subject properly with both kinds of skill.
[Starting the Practice]
80. If it is convenient for him to live in the same monastery as the teacher, then
he need not get it explained in detail thus [to begin with], but as he applies
himself to the meditation subject after he has made quite sure about it he can
have each successive stage explained as he reaches each distinction.
One who wants to live elsewhere, however, must get it explained to him in
detail in the way already given, and he must turn it over and over, getting all the
difficulties solved. He should leave an abode of an unsuitable kind as described
in the Description of the Earth Kasiṇa, and go to live in a suitable one. Then he
should sever the minor impediments (IV.20) and set about the preliminary work
for giving attention to repulsiveness.
18.
Vism-mhṭ explains “sati sati āyatane” (rendered here by “whenever there is
occasion” with “tasmiṃ tasmiṃ pubbahetu-ādi-kāraṇe sati” (“when there is this or that
reason consisting in a previous cause, etc.”); M-a IV 146 says: “Sati sati kāraṇe. Kim pan’
ettha kāraṇan’ti. Abhiññā’ va kāraṇaṃ (‘Whenever there is a reason. But what is the
reason here? The direct-knowledge itself is the reason’).”
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[The Thirty-two Aspects in Detail]
81.
When he sets about it, he should first apprehend the [learning] sign in
head hairs. How? The colour should be defined first by plucking out one or two
head hairs and placing them on the palm of the hand. [249] He can also look at
them in the hair-cutting place, or in a bowl of water or rice gruel. If the ones he
sees are black when he sees them, they should be brought to mind as “black;” if
white, as “white;” if mixed, they should be brought to mind in accordance with
those most prevalent. And as in the case of head hairs, so too the sign should be
apprehended visually with the whole of the “skin pentad.”
82. Having apprehended the sign thus and (a) defined all the other parts of the
body by colour, shape, direction, location, and delimitation (§58), he should then (b)
define repulsiveness in five ways, that is, by colour, shape, odour, habitat, and location.
83. Here is the explanation of all the parts given in successive order.
[Head Hairs]
(a) Firstly head hairs are black in their normal colour, the colour of fresh
ariṭṭhaka seeds.19 As to shape, they are the shape of long round measuring rods.20
As to direction, they lie in the upper direction. As to location, their location is the
wet inner skin that envelops the skull; it is bounded on both sides by the roots of
the ears, in front by the forehead, and behind by the nape of the neck.21 As to
delimitation, they are bounded below by the surface of their own roots, which are
fixed by entering to the amount of the tip of a rice grain into the inner skin that
envelops the head. They are bounded above by space, and all round by each
other. There are no two hairs together. This is their delimitation by the similar.
Head hairs are not body hairs, and body hairs are not head hairs; being likewise
not intermixed with the remaining thirty-one parts, the head hairs are a separate
part. This is their delimitation by the dissimilar. Such is the definition of head
hairs as to colour and so on.
84. (b) Their definition as to repulsiveness in the five ways, that is, by colour, etc.,
is as follows. Head hairs are repulsive in colour as well as in shape, odour,
habitat, and location.
85. For on seeing the colour of a head hair in a bowl of inviting rice gruel or
cooked rice, people are disgusted and say, “This has got hairs in it. Take it
away.” So they are repulsive in colour. Also when people are eating at night, they
are likewise disgusted by the mere sensation of a hair-shaped akka-bark or makaci-
bark fibre. So they are repulsive in shape.
86.
And the odour of head hairs, unless dressed with a smearing of oil, scented
with flowers, etc., is most offensive. And it is still worse when they are put in the
19. Ariṭṭhaka as a plant is not in PED; see CPD—Sinh penela uṭa.
20. There are various readings.
21. “Galavāṭaka,” here rendered by “nape of the neck,” which the context demands.
But elsewhere (e.g. IV.47, VIII.110) “base of the neck” seems indicated, that is, where
the neck fits on to the body, or “gullet.”
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fire. [250] Even if head hairs are not directly repulsive in colour and shape, still
their odour is directly repulsive. Just as a baby’s excrement, as to its colour, is the
colour of turmeric and, as to its shape, is the shape of a piece of turmeric root,
and just as the bloated carcass of a black dog thrown on a rubbish heap, as to its
colour, is the colour of a ripe palmyra fruit and, as to its shape, is the shape of a
[mandolin-shaped] drum left face down, and its fangs are like jasmine buds,
and so even if both these are not directly repulsive in colour and shape, still their
odour is directly repulsive, so too, even if head hairs are not directly repulsive in
colour and shape, still their odour is directly repulsive.
87.
But just as pot herbs that grow on village sewage in a filthy place are
disgusting to civilized people and unusable, so also head hairs are disgusting
since they grow on the sewage of pus, blood, urine, dung, bile, phlegm, and the
like. This is the repulsive aspect of the habitat.
88. And these head hairs grow on the heap of the [other] thirty-one parts as
fungi do on a dung-hill. And owing to the filthy place they grow in they are
quite as unappetizing as vegetables growing on a charnel-ground, on a midden,
etc., as lotuses or water lilies growing in drains, and so on. This is the repulsive
aspect of their location.
89. And as in the case of head hairs, so also the repulsiveness of all the parts
should be defined (b) in the same five ways by colour, shape, odour, habitat, and
location. All, however, must be defined individually (a) by colour, shape, direction,
location, and delimitation, as follows.
[Body Hairs]
90. Herein, firstly, as to natural colour, body, hairs are not pure black like head
hairs but blackish brown. As to shape, they are the shape of palm roots with the
tips bent down. As to direction, they lie in the two directions. As to location,
except for the locations where the head hairs are established, and for the palms
of the hands and soles of the feet, they grow in most of the rest of the inner skin
that envelops the body. As to delimitation, they are bounded below by the surface
of their own roots, which are fixed by entering to the extent of a likhā22 into the
inner skin that envelops the body, above by space, and all round by each other. There
are no two body hairs together. This is the delimitation by the similar. But their
delimitation by the dissimilar is like that for the head hairs. [Note: These two last
sentences are repeated verbatim at the end of the description of each part. They
are not translated in the remaining thirty parts].
[Nails]
91.
“Nails” is the name for the twenty nail plates. They are all white as to
colour. As to shape, they are the shape of fish scales. As to direction: the toenails
are in the lower direction; the fingernails are in the upper direction. [251] So
they grow in the two directions. As to location, they are fixed on the tips of the
backs of the fingers and toes. As to delimitation, they are bounded in the two
22. A measure of length, as much as a “louse’s head.”
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directions by the flesh of the ends of the fingers and toes, and inside by the flesh
of the backs of the fingers and toes, and externally and at the end by space, and
all round by each other. There are no two nails together …
[Teeth]
92. There are thirty-two tooth bones in one whose teeth are complete. They are
white in colour. As to shape, they are of various shapes; for firstly in the lower row,
the four middle teeth are the shape of pumpkin seeds set in a row in a lump of
clay; that on each side of them has one root and one point and is the shape of a
jasmine bud; each one after that has two roots and two points and is the shape of
a wagon prop; then two each side with three roots and three points, then two
each side four-rooted and four-pointed. Likewise in the upper row. As to direction,
they lie in the upper direction. As to location, they are fixed in the jawbones. As
to  delimitation, they are bounded by the surface of their own roots which are
fixed in the jawbones; they are bounded above by space, and all round by each
other. There are no two teeth together …
[Skin (Taca)]
93.
The inner skin envelops the whole body. Outside it is what is called the
outer cuticle, which is black, brown or yellow in colour, and when that from the
whole of the body is compressed together, it amounts to only as much as a
jujube-fruit kernel. But as to colour, the skin itself is white; and its whiteness
becomes evident when the outer cuticle is destroyed by contact with the flame of
a fire or the impact of a blow and so on.
94. As to shape, it is the shape of the body in brief. But in detail, the skin of the
toes is the shape of silkworms’ cocoons; the skin of the back of the foot is the
shape of shoes with uppers; the skin of the calf is the shape of a palm leaf
wrapping cooked rice; the skin of the thighs is the shape of a long sack full of
paddy; the skin of the buttocks is the shape of a cloth strainer full of water; the
skin of the back is the shape of hide streched over a plank; the skin of the belly is
the shape of the hide stretched over the body of a lute; the skin of the chest is more or
less square; the skin of both arms is the shape of the hide stretched over a quiver; the
skin of the backs of the hands is the shape of a razor box, or the shape of a comb case;
the skin of the fingers is the shape of a key box; the skin of the neck is the shape of a
collar for the throat; the skin of the face [252] is the shape of an insects’ nest full of
holes; the skin of the head is the shape of a bowl bag.
95. The meditator who is discerning the skin should first define the inner skin
that covers the face, working his knowledge over the face beginning with the
upper lip. Next, the inner skin of the frontal bone. Next, he should define the
inner skin of the head, separating, as it were, the inner skin’s connection with
the bone by inserting his knowledge in between the cranium bone and the inner
skin of the head, as he might his hand in between the bag and the bowl put in
the bag. Next, the inner skin of the shoulders. Next, the inner skin of the right
arm forwards and backwards; and then in the same way the inner skin of the left
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arm. Next, after defining the inner skin of the back, he should define the inner
skin of the right leg forwards and backwards; then the inner skin of the left leg
in the same way. Next, the inner skin of the groin, the paunch, the bosom and the
neck should be successively defined. Then, after defining the inner skin of the
lower jaw next after that of the neck, he should finish on arriving at the lower lip.
When he discerns it in the gross in this way, it becomes evident to him more
subtly too.
96. As to direction, it lies in both directions. As to location, it covers the whole body.
As to delimitation, it is bounded below by its fixed surface, and above by space …
[Flesh]
97. There are nine hundred pieces of flesh. As to colour, it is all red, like kiṃsuka
flowers. As to shape, the flesh of the calves is the shape of cooked rice in a palm-
leaf bag. The flesh of the thighs is the shape of a rolling pin.23 The flesh of the
buttocks is the shape of the end of an oven. The flesh of the back is the shape of
a slab of palm sugar. The flesh between each two ribs is the shape of clay mortar
squeezed thin in a flattened opening. The flesh of the breast is the shape of a
lump of clay made into a ball and flung down. The flesh of the two upper arms
is the shape of a large skinned rat and twice the size. When he discerns it
grossly in this way, it becomes evident to him subtly too.
98. As to direction, it lies in both directions. As to location, it is plastered over the
three hundred and odd bones. [253] As to delimitation, it is bounded below by its
surface, which is fixed on to the collection of bones, and above by the skin, and
all round each by each other piece …
[Sinews]
99. There are nine hundred sinews. As to colour, all the sinews are white. As to
shape, they have various shapes. For five of great sinews that bind the body together
start out from the upper part of the neck and descend by the front, and five more
by the back, and then five by the right and five by the left. And of those that bind
the right hand, five descend by the front of the hand and five by the back; likewise
those that bind the left hand. And of those that bind the right foot, five descend
by the front and five by the back; likewise those that bind the left foot. So there are
sixty great sinews called “body supporters” which descend [from the neck] and
bind the body together; and they are also called “tendons.” They are all the
shape of yam shoots. But there are others scattered over various parts of the body,
which are finer than the last-named. They are the shape of strings and cords.
There are others still finer, the shape of creepers. Others still finer are the shape
of large lute strings. Yet others are the shape of coarse thread. The sinews in the
backs of the hands and feet are the shape of a bird’s claw. The sinews in the head
are the shape of children’s head nets. The sinews in the back are the shape of a
23. Nisadapota—“rolling pin”: (= silā-puttaka—Vism-mhṭ 250) What is meant is probably
the stone roller, thicker in the middle than at the ends, with which curry spices, etc., are
normally rolled by hand on a small stone slab in Sri Lanka today.
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wet net spread out in the sun. The rest of the sinews, following the various limbs,
are the shape of a net jacket fitted to the body.
100. As to direction, they lie in the two directions. As to location, they are to be
found binding the bones of the whole body together. As to delimitation, they are
bounded below by their surface, which is fixed on to the three hundred bones,
and above by the portions that are in contact with the flesh and the inner skin,
and all round by each other …
[Bones]
101.
Excepting the thirty-two teeth bones, these consist of the remaining sixty-
four hand bones, sixty-four foot bones, sixty-four soft bones dependent on the
flesh, two heel bones; then in each leg two ankle bones, two shin bones, one knee
bone and one thigh bone; then two hip bones, eighteen spine bones, [254] twenty-
four rib bones, fourteen breast bones, one heart bone (sternum), two collar bones, two
shoulder blade bones,24 two upper-arm bones, two pairs of forearm bones, two neck
bones, two jaw bones, one nose bone, two eye bones, two ear bones, one frontal bone,
one occipital bone, nine sincipital bones. So there are exactly three hundred bones.
As to colour, they are all white. As to shape, they are of various shapes.
102. Herein, the end bones of the toes are the shape of kataka seeds. Those next
to them in the middle sections are the shape of jackfruit seeds. The bones of the
base sections are the shape of small drums. The bones of the back of the foot are
the shape of a bunch of bruised yarns. The heel bone is the shape of the seed of
a single-stone palmyra fruit.
103.
The ankle bones are the shape of [two] play balls bound together. The
shin bones, in the place where they rest on the ankle bones, are the shape of a
sindi shoot without the skin removed. The small shin bone is the shape of a[toy]
bow stick. The large one is the shape of a shrivelled snake’s back. The knee bone
is the shape of a lump of froth melted on one side. Herein, the place where the
shin bone rests on it is the shape of a blunt cow’s horn. The thigh bone is the
shape of a badly-pared25 handle for an axe or hatchet. The place where it fits into
the hip bone is the shape of a play ball. The place in the hip bone where it is set
is the shape of a big punnāga fruit with the end cut off.
104.
The two hip bones, when fastened together, are the shape of the ring-
fastening of a smith’s hammer. The buttock bone on the end [of them] is the
shape of an inverted snake’s hood. It is perforated in seven or eight places. The
spine bones are internally the shape of lead-sheet pipes put one on top of the
other; externally they are the shape of a string of beads. They have two or three
rows of projections next to each other like the teeth of a saw.
24.
Koṭṭhaṭṭhīni—“shoulder-blade bones”: for koṭṭha (= flat) cf. koṭṭhalika §97; the
meaning is demanded by the context, otherwise no mention would be made of these
two bones, and the description fits. PED under this ref. has “stomach bone” (?).
Should one read a-tikhiṇa (blunt) or ati-khiṇa (very sharp)?
25. Duttacchita—“badly pared”: tacchita, pp. of tacchati to pare (e.g. with an adze); not
in PED; see M I 31,124; III 166.
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105. Of the twenty-four rib bones, the incomplete ones are the shape of incomplete
sabres, [255] and the complete ones are the shape of complete sabres; all together
they are like the outspread wings of a white cock. The fourteen breast bones are the
shape of an old chariot frame.26 The heart bone (sternum) is the shape of the bowl of
a spoon. The collar bones are the shape of small metal knife handles. The shoulder-
blade bones are the shape of a Sinhalese hoe worn down on one side.
106.
The upper-arm bones are the shape of looking glass handles. The forearm
bones are the shape of a twin palm’s trunks. The wrist bones are the shape of
lead-sheet pipes stuck together. The bones of the back of the hand are the shape
of a bundle of bruised yams. As to the fingers, the bones of the base sections are
the shape of small drums; those of the middle sections are the shape of immature
jackfruit seeds; those of the end sections are the shape of kataka seeds.
107.
The seven neck bones are the shape of rings of bamboo stem threaded one
after the other on a stick. The lower jawbone is the shape of a smith’s iron
hammer ring-fastening. The upper one is the shape of a knife for scraping [the
rind off sugarcanes]. The bones of the eye sockets and nostril sockets are the
shape of young palmyra seeds with the kernels removed. The frontal bone is the
shape of an inverted bowl made of a shell. The bones of the ear-holes are the
shape of barbers’ razor boxes. The bone in the place where a cloth is tied [round
the head] above the frontal bone and the ear holes is the shape of a piece of
curled-up toffee flake.27 The occipital bone is the shape of a lopsided coconut
with a hole cut in the end. The sincipital bones are the shape of a dish made of
an old gourd held together with stitches.
108. As to direction, they lie in both directions. As to location, they are to be found
indiscriminately throughout the whole body. But in particular here, the head bones
rest on the neck bones, the neck bones on the spine bones, the spine bones on the hip
bones, the hip bones on the thigh bones, the thigh bones on the knee bones, the knee
bones on the shin bones, the shin bones on the ankle bones, the ankle bones on the
bones of the back of the foot. As to delimitation, they are bounded inside by the bone
marrow, above by the flesh, at the ends and at the roots by each other …
[Bone Marrow]
109.
This is the marrow inside the various bones. As to colour, it is white. As to
shape, [256] that inside each large bone is the shape of a large cane shoot moistened
and inserted into a bamboo tube. That inside each small bone is the shape of a
slender cane shoot moistened and inserted in a section of bamboo twig. As to
direction, it lies in both directions. As to location, it is set inside the bones. As to
delimitation, it is delimited by the inner surface of the bones …
26. Pañjara—“frame”: not quite in this sense in PED.
27. Saṅkuṭitaghaṭapuṇṇapaṭalakhaṇḍa—“a piece of curled-up toffee flake.” The Sinhalese
translation suggests the following readings and resolution: saṅkuthita (thickened or
boiled down (?), rather than saṅkuṭita, curled up); ghata-puṇṇa ([toffee?] “full of ghee”);
paṭala (flake or slab); khaṇḍa (piece).
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[Kidney]
110.
This is two pieces of flesh with a single ligature. As to colour, it is dull red,
the colour of pālibhaddaka (coral tree) seeds. As to shape, it is the shape of a pair
of child’s play balls; or it is the shape of a pair of mango fruits attached to a
single stalk. As to direction, it lies in the upper direction. As to location, it is to be
found on either side of the heart flesh, being fastened by a stout sinew that starts out
with one root from the base of the neck and divides into two after going a short way.
As to delimitation, the kidney is bounded by what appertains to kidney …
[Heart]
111.
This is the heart flesh. As to colour, it is the colour of the back of a red-lotus
petal. As to shape, it is the shape of a lotus bud with the outer petals removed and
turned upside down; it is smooth outside, and inside it is like the interior of a
kosātakī  (loofah gourd). In those who possess understanding it is a little
expanded; in those without understanding it is still only a bud. Inside it there is
a hollow the size of a punnāga seed’s bed where half a pasata measure of blood is
kept, with which as their support the mind element and mind-consciousness
element occur.
112.
That in one of greedy temperament is red; that in one of hating
temperament is black; that in one of deluded temperament is like water that meat
has been washed in; that in one of speculative temperament is like lentil soup in
colour; that in one of faithful temperament is the colour of [yellow] kanikāra
flowers; that in one of understanding temperament is limpid, clear, unturbid,
bright, pure, like a washed gem of pure water, and it seems to shine.
113. As to direction, it lies in the upper direction. As to location, it is to be found
in the middle between the two breasts, inside the body. As to delimitation, it is
bounded by what appertains to heart … [257]
[Liver]
114.
This is a twin slab of flesh. As to colour, it is a brownish shade of red, the
colour of the not-too-red backs of white water-lily petals. As to shape, with its
single root and twin ends, it is the shape of a koviḷāra leaf. In sluggish people it
is single and large; in those possessed of understanding there are two or three
small ones. As to direction, it lies in the upper direction. As to location, it is to be
found on the right side, inside from the two breasts. As to delimitation, it is
bounded by what appertains to liver …
[Midriff]28
115. This is the covering of the flesh, which is of two kinds, namely, the concealed
and the unconcealed. As to colour, both kinds are white, the colour of dukūla
(muslin) rags. As to shape, it is the shape of its location. As to direction, the
28. Kilomaka—“midriff”: the rendering is obviously quite inadequate for what is
described here, but there is no appropriate English word.
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concealed midriff lies in the upper direction, the other in both directions. As to
location, the concealed midriff is to be found concealing the heart and kidney;
the unconcealed is to be found covering the flesh under the inner skin throughout
the whole body. As to delimitation, it is bounded below by the flesh, above by the
inner skin, and all round by what appertains to midriff …
[Spleen]
116.
This is the flesh of the belly’s “tongue.” As to colour, it is blue, the colour of
nigguṇḍi flowers. As to shape, it is seven fingers in size, without attachments, and
the shape of a black calf’s tongue. As to direction, it lies in the upper direction. As
to location, it is to be found near the upper side of the belly to the left of the heart.
When it comes out through a wound a being’s life is terminated. As to delimitation,
it is bounded by what appertains to spleen …
[Lungs]
117.
The flesh of the lungs is divided up into two or three pieces of flesh. As to
colour, it is red, the colour of not very ripe udumbara fig fruits. As to shape, it is the
shape of an unevenly cut thick slice of cake. Inside, it is insipid and lacks nutritive
essence, like a lump of chewed straw, because it is affected by the heat of the
kamma-born fire [element] that springs up when there is need of something to
eat and drink. As to direction, it lies in the upper direction. As to location, it is to
be found inside the body between the two breasts, hanging above the heart [258]
and liver and concealing them. As to delimitation, it is bounded by what
appertains to lungs …
[Bowel]
118.
This is the bowel tube; it is looped29 in twenty-one places, and in a man it
is thirty-two hands long, and in a woman, twenty-eight hands. As to colour, it is
white, the colour of lime [mixed] with sand. As to shape, it is the shape of a
beheaded snake coiled up and put in a trough of blood. As to direction, it lies in
the two directions. As to location, it is fastened above at the gullet and below to
the excrement passage (rectum), so it is to be found inside the body between the
limits of the gullet and the excrement passage. As to delimitation, it is bounded
by what pertains to bowel …
[Entrails (Mesentery)]
119.
This is the fastening in the places where the bowel is coiled. As to colour,
it is white, the colour of dakasītalika30 (white edible water lily) roots. As to shape, it is
the shape of those roots too. As to direction, it lies in the two directions. As to
location, it is to be found inside the twenty-one coils of the bowel, like the strings
29. Obhagga—“looped”: not in this sense in PED; see obhañjati (XI.64 and PED).
30. Dakasītalika: not in PED; rendered in Sinhalese translation by helmaeli (white edible
water lily).
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to be found inside rope-rings for wiping the feet on, sewing them together, and
it fastens the bowel’s coils together so that they do not slip down in those working
with hoes, axes, etc., as the marionette-strings do the marionette’s wooden [limbs]
at the time of the marionette’s being pulled along. As to delimitation, it is bounded
by what appertains to entrails …
[Gorge]
120.
This is what has been eaten, drunk, chewed and tasted, and is present in the
stomach. As to colour, it is the colour of swallowed food. As to shape, it is the shape of
rice loosely tied in a cloth strainer. As to direction, it is in the upper direction. As to
location, it is in the stomach.
121.
What is called the “stomach” is [a part of] the bowel-membrane, which is
like the swelling [of air] produced in the middle of a length of wet cloth when it
is being [twisted and] wrung out from the two ends. It is smooth outside. Inside,
it is like a balloon of cloth31 soiled by wrapping up meat refuse; or it can be said
to be like the inside of the skin of a rotten jack fruit. It is the place where worms
dwell seething in tangles: the thirty-two families of worms, such as round worms,
boil-producing worms, “palm-splinter” worms, needle-mouthed worms, tape-
worms, thread worms, and the rest.32 When there is no food and drink, [259] etc.,
present, they leap up shrieking and pounce upon the heart’s flesh; and when
food and drink, etc., are swallowed, they wait with uplifted mouths and scramble
to snatch the first two or three lumps swallowed. It is these worms’ maternity
home, privy, hospital and charnel ground. Just as when it has rained heavily in
a time of drought and what has been carried by the water into the cesspit at the
gate of an outcaste village—the various kinds of ordure33 such as urine, excrement,
bits of hide and bones and sinews, as well as spittle, snot, blood, etc.—gets
mixed up with the mud and water already collected there; and after two or three
days the families of worms appear, and it ferments, warmed by the energy of the
sun’s heat, frothing and bubbling on the top, quite black in colour, and so utterly
stinking and loathsome that one can scarcely go near it or look at it, much less
smell or taste it, so too, [the stomach is where] the assortment of food, drink, etc.,
falls after being pounded up by the tongue and stuck together with spittle and
31.
Maṃsaka-sambupali-veṭhana-kiliṭṭha-pāvāra-pupphaka-sadisa: this is rendered into
Sinhalese by kuṇu mas kasaḷa velu porõnā kaḍek pup (“an inflated piece (or bag) of cloth,
which has wrapped rotten meat refuse”). In PED pāvāra is given as “cloak, mantle”
and (this ref.) as “the mango tree”; but there seems to be no authority for the rendering
“mango tree,” which has nothing to do with this context. Pupphaka (balloon) is not in
PED (cf. common Burmese spelling of bubbuḷa (bubble) as pupphuḷa).
32. It would be a mistake to take the renderings of these worms’ names too literally.
Gaṇḍuppada (boil-producing worm?) appears only as “earth worm” in PED, which will
not do here. The more generally accepted reading seems to take paṭatantuka and
suttaka (tape-worm and thread-worm) as two kinds rather than paṭatantusuttaka; neither
is in PED.
33. Kuṇapa—“ordure”; PED only gives the meaning “corpse,” which does not fit the
meaning either here or, e.g., at XI.21, where the sense of a dead body is inappropriate.
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saliva, losing at that moment its virtues of colour, smell, taste, etc., and taking on
the appearance of weavers’ paste and dogs’ vomit, then to get soused in the bile
and phlegm and wind that have collected there, where it ferments with the
energy of the stomach-fire’s heat, seethes with the families of worms, frothing
and bubbling on the top, till it turns into utterly stinking nauseating muck, even
to hear about which takes away any appetite for food, drink, etc., let alone to see
it with the eye of understanding. And when the food, drink, etc., fall into it, they
get divided into five parts: the worms eat one part, the stomach-fire bums up
another part, another part becomes urine, another part becomes excrement, and
one part is turned into nourishment and sustains the blood, flesh and so on.
122.
As to delimitation, it is bounded by the stomach lining and by what
appertains to gorge …
[Dung]
123.
This is excrement. As to colour, it is mostly the colour of eaten food. As to
shape, it is the shape of its location. As to direction, it is in the lower direction. As
to location, it is to be found in the receptacle for digested food (rectum).
124.
The receptacle for digested food is the lowest part at the end of the bowel,
between the navel and the root of the spine. [260] It measures eight fingerbreadths
in height and resembles a bamboo tube. Just as when rain water falls on a higher
level it runs down to fill a lower level and stays there, so too, the receptacle for
digested food is where any food, drink, etc., that have fallen into the receptacle
for undigested food, have been continuously cooked and simmered by the
stomach-fire, and have got as soft as though ground up on a stone, run down to
through the cavities of the bowels, and it is pressed down there till it becomes
impacted like brown clay pushed into a bamboo joint, and there it stays.
125. As to delimitation, it is bounded by the receptacle for digested food and by
what appertains to dung …
[Brain]
126.
This is the lumps of marrow to be found inside the skull. As to colour, it is
white, the colour of the flesh of a toadstool; it can also be said that it is the colour
of turned milk that has not yet become curd. As to shape, it is the shape of its
location. As to direction, it belongs to the upper direction. As to location, it is to be
found inside the skull, like four lumps of dough put together to correspond
with the [skull’s] four sutured sections. As to delimitation, it is bounded by the
skull’s inner surface and by what appertains to brain …
[Bile]
127.
There are two kinds of bile: local bile and free bile. Herein as to colour, the
local bile is the colour of thick madhuka  oil; the free bile is the colour of faded
ākulī flowers. As to shape, both are the shape of their location. As to direction, the
local bile belongs to the upper direction; the other belongs to both directions. As
to  location, the free bile spreads, like a drop of oil on water, all over the body
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except for the fleshless parts of the head hairs, body hairs, teeth, nails, and the
hard dry skin. When it is disturbed, the eyes become yellow and twitch, and
there is shivering and itching34  of the body. The local bile is situated near the
flesh of the liver between the heart and the lungs. It is to be found in the bile
container (gall bladder), which is like a large kosātakī (loofah) gourd pip. When
it is disturbed, beings go crazy and become demented, they throw off conscience
and shame and do the undoable, speak the unspeakable, and think the
unthinkable. As to delimitation, it is bounded by what appertains to bile … [261]
[Phlegm]
128.
The phlegm is inside the body and it measures a bowlful. As to colour, it is
white, the colour of the juice of nāgabalā leaves. As to shape, it is the shape of its
location. As to direction, it belongs to the upper direction. As to location, it is to be
found on the stomach’s surface. Just as duckweed and green scum on the surface
of water divide when a stick or a potsherd is dropped into the water and then
spread together again, so too, at the time of eating and drinking, etc., when the
food, drink, etc., fall into the stomach, the phlegm divides and then spreads
together again. And if it gets weak the stomach becomes utterly disgusting with
a smell of ordure, like a ripe boil or a rotten hen’s egg, and then the belchings
and the mouth reek with a stench like rotting ordure rising from the stomach, so
that the man has to be told, “Go away, your breath smells.” But when it grows
plentiful it holds the stench of ordure beneath the surface of the stomach, acting like
the wooden lid of a privy. As to delimitation, it is bounded by what appertains to
phlegm …
[Pus]
129.
Pus is produced by decaying blood. As to colour, it is the colour of bleached
leaves; but in a dead body it is the colour of stale thickened gruel. As to shape, it
is the shape of its location. As to direction, it belongs to both directions. As to
location, however, there is no fixed location for pus where it could be found
stored up. Wherever blood stagnates and goes bad in some part of the body
damaged by wounds with stumps and thorns, by burns with fire, etc., or where
boils, carbuncles, etc., appear, it can be found there. As to delimitation, it is bounded
by what appertains to pus …
[Blood]
130. There are two kinds of blood: stored blood and mobile blood. Herein, as to
colour, stored blood is the colour of cooked and thickened lac solution; mobile blood
is the colour of clear lac solution. As to shape, both are the shape of their locations. As
to direction, the stored blood belongs to the upper direction; the other belongs to both
directions. As to location, except for the fleshless parts of the head hairs, body hairs,
teeth, nails, and the hard dry skin, the mobile blood permeates the whole of the
clung-to (kammically-acquired)35 body by following the network of veins. The
34. Kaṇḍūyati—“to itch”: the verb is not in PED; see kaṇḍu.
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stored blood fills the lower part of the liver’s site [262] to the extent of a
bowlful, and by its splashing little by little over the heart, kidney and lungs,
it keeps the kidney, heart, liver and lungs moist. For it is when it fails to
moisten the kidney, heart, etc., that beings become thirsty. As to delimitation,
it is bounded by what appertains to blood …
[Sweat]
131.
This is the water element that trickles from the pores of the body hairs, and
so on. As to colour, it is the colour of clear sesame oil. As to shape, it is the shape
of its location. As to direction, it belongs to both directions. As to location, there is
no fixed location for sweat where it could always be found like blood. But if the
body is heated by the heat of a fire, by the sun’s heat, by a change of temperature,
etc., then it trickles from all the pore openings of the head hairs and body hairs,
as water does from a bunch of unevenly cut lily-bud stems and lotus stalks
pulled up from the water. So its shape should also be understood to correspond
to the pore-openings of the head hairs and body hairs. And the meditator who
discerns sweat should only give his attention to it as it is to be found filling the
pore-openings of the head hairs and body hairs. As to delimitation, it is bounded
by what appertains to sweat …
[Fat]
132.
This is a thick unguent. As to colour, it is the colour of sliced turmeric. As
to shape, firstly in the body of a stout man it is the shape of turmeric-coloured
dukūla (muslin) rags placed between the inner skin and the flesh. In the body of
a lean man it is the shape of turmeric-coloured dukūla (muslin) rags placed in
two or three thicknesses on the shank flesh, thigh flesh, back flesh near the
spine, and belly-covering flesh. As to direction, it belongs to both directions. As
to location, it permeates the whole of a stout man’s body; it is to be found on a
lean man’s shank flesh, and so on. And though it was described as “unguent”
above, still it is neither used as oil on the head nor as oil for the nose, etc., because
of its utter disgustingness. As to delimitation, it is bounded below by the flesh,
above by the inner skin, and all round by what appertains to fat …
[Tears]
133.
These are the water element that trickles from the eye. As to colour, they are
the colour of clear sesame oil. As to shape, they are the shape of their location.
[263] As to direction, they belong to the upper direction. As to location, they are to
be found in the eye sockets. But they are not stored in the eye sockets all the while
as the bile is in the bile container. But when beings feel joy and laugh uproariously,
or feel grief and weep and lament, or eat particular kinds of wrong food, or
when their eyes are affected by smoke, dust, dirt, etc., then being originated by
the joy, grief, wrong food, or temperature, they fill up the eye sockets or trickle
out. And the meditator who discerns tears should discern them only as they are
35. Upādiṇṇa—“clung-to”: see Ch. XIV, note 23.
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to be found filling the eye sockets. As to delimitation, they are bounded by what
appertains to tears …
[Grease]
134.
This is a melted unguent. As to colour, it is the colour of coconut oil. Also
it can be said to be the colour of oil sprinkled on gruel. As to shape, it is a film the
shape of a drop of unguent spread out over still water at the time of bathing. As
to direction, it belongs to both directions. As to location, it is to be found mostly on
the palms of the hands, backs of the hands, soles of the feet, backs of the feet, tip
of the nose, forehead, and points of the shoulders. And it is not always to be
found in the melted state in these locations, but when these parts get hot with the
heat of a fire, the sun’s heat, upset of temperature or upset of elements, then it
spreads here and there in those places like the film from the drop of unguent on
the still water at the time of bathing. As to delimitation, it is bounded by what
appertains to grease …
[Spittle]
135.
This is water element mixed with froth inside the mouth. As to colour, it is
white, the colour of the froth. As to shape, it is the shape of its location, or it can be
called “the shape of froth.” As to direction, it belongs to the upper direction. As
to location, it is to be found on the tongue after it has descended from the cheeks
on both sides. And it is not always to be found stored there; but when beings see
particular kinds of food, or remember them, or put something hot or bitter or
sharp or salty or sour into their mouths, or when their hearts are faint, or nausea
arises on some account, then spittle appears and runs down from the cheeks on
both sides to settle on the tongue. It is thin at the tip of the tongue, and thick at
the root of the tongue. It is capable, without getting used up, of wetting unhusked
rice or husked rice or anything else chewable that is put into the mouth, like the
water in a pit scooped out in a river sand bank. [264] As to delimitation, it is
bounded by what appertains to spittle …
[Snot]
136.
This is impurity that trickles out from the brain. As to colour, it is the
colour of a young palmyra kernel. As to shape, it is the shape of its location. As to
direction, it belongs to the upper direction. As to location, it is to be found filling
the nostril cavities. And it is not always to be found stored there; but rather, just
as though a man tied up curd in a lotus leaf, which he then pricked with a thorn
underneath, and whey oozed out and dripped, so too, when beings weep or
suffer a disturbance of elements produced by wrong food or temperature, then
the brain inside the head turns into stale phlegm, and it oozes out and comes
down by an opening in the palate, and it fills the nostrils and stays there or
trickles out. And the meditator who discerns snot should discern it only as it is
to be found filling the nostril cavities. As to delimitation, it is bounded by what
appertains to snot …
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[Oil of the Joints]
137.
This is the slimy ordure inside the joints in the body. As to colour, it is the
colour of kaṇikāra gum. As to shape, it is the shape of its location. As to direction,
it belongs to both directions. As to location, it is to be found inside the hundred
and eighty joints, serving the function of lubricating the bones’ joints. If it is
weak, when a man gets up or sits down, moves forward or backward, bends or
stretches, then his bones creak, and he goes about making a noise like the
snapping of fingers, and when he has walked only one or two leagues’ distance,
his air element gets upset and his limbs pain him. But if a man has plenty of it, his
bones do not creak when he gets up, sits down, etc., and even when he has walked
a long distance, his air element does not get upset and his limbs do not pain him. As
to delimitation, it is bounded by what appertains to oil of the joints …
[Urine]
138.
This is the urine solution. As to colour, it is the colour of bean brine. As to
shape, it is the shape of water inside a water pot placed upside down. As to
direction, it belongs to the lower direction. As to location, it is to be found inside
the bladder. For the bladder sack is called the bladder. Just as when a porous pot
with no mouth is put into a cesspool, [265] then the solution from the cesspool
gets into the porous pot with no mouth even though no way of entry is evident,
so too, while the urinary secretion from the body enters the bladder its way of
entry is not evident. Its way of exit, however, is evident. And when the bladder is
full of urine, beings feel the need to make water. As to delimitation, it is delimited
by the inside of the bladder and by what is similar to urine. This is the delimitation
by the similar. But its delimitation by the dissimilar is like that for the head hairs
(see note at end of §90).
[The Arising of Absorption]
139.
When the meditator has defined the parts beginning with the head hairs
in this way by colour, shape, direction, location and delimitation (§58), and he
gives his attention in the ways beginning with “following the order, not too
quickly” (§61) to their repulsiveness in the five aspects of colour, shape, smell,
habitat, and location (§84f.), then at last he surmounts the concept (§66). Then
just as when a man with good sight is observing a garland of flowers of thirty-
two colours knotted on a single string and all the flowers become evident to him
simultaneously, so too, when the meditator observes this body thus, “There are in
this body head hairs,” then all these things become evident to him, as it were,
simultaneously. Hence it was said above in the explanation of skill in giving
attention: “For when a beginner gives his attention to head hairs, his attention
carries on till it arrives at the last part, that is, urine, and stops there” (§67).
140.
If he applies his attention externally as well when all the parts have become
evident in this way, then human beings, animals, etc., as they go about are
divested of their aspect of beings and appear as just assemblages of parts. And
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when drink, food, etc., is being swallowed by them, it appears as though it were
being put in among the assemblage of parts.
141.
Then, as he gives his attention to them again and again as “Repulsive,
repulsive,” employing the process of “successive leaving,” etc. (§67), eventually
absorption arises in him. Herein, the appearance of the head hairs, etc., as to
colour, shape, direction, location, and delimitation is the learning sign; their
appearance as repulsive in all aspects is the counterpart sign.
As he cultivates and develops that counterpart sign, absorption arises in him,
but only of the first jhāna, in the same way as described under foulness as a
meditation subject (VI.64f.). And it arises singly in one to whom only one part
has become evident, or who has reached absorption in one part and makes no
further effort about another.
142.
But several first jhānas, according to the number of parts, are produced in
one to whom several parts have become evident, or who has reached jhāna in
one and also makes further effort about another. As in the case of the Elder
Mallaka. [266]
The elder, it seems, took the Elder Abhaya, the Dīgha reciter, by the hand,36
and after saying “Friend Abhaya, first learn this matter,” he went on: “The Elder
Mallaka is an obtainer of thirty-two jhānas in the thirty-two parts. If he enters
upon one by night and one by day, he goes on entering upon them for over a
fortnight; but if he enters upon one each day, he goes on entering upon them for
over a month.”
143.
And although this meditation is successful in this way with the first
jhāna, it is nevertheless called “mindfulness occupied with the body” because it
is successful through the influence of the mindfulness of the colour, shape, and
so on.
144.
And the bhikkhu who is devoted to this mindfulness occupied with the
body “is a conqueror of boredom and delight, and boredom does not conquer
him; he dwells transcending boredom as it arises. He is a conqueror of fear and
dread, and fear and dread do not conquer him; he dwells transcending fear and
dread as they arise. He is one who bears cold and heat … who endures … arisen
bodily feelings that are … menacing to life” (M III 97); he becomes an obtainer of
the four jhānas based on the colour aspect of the head hairs,37 etc.; and he comes
to penetrate the six kinds of direct-knowledge (see MN 6).
So let a man, if he is wise,
Untiringly devote his days
To mindfulness of body which
Rewards him in so many ways.
36.
Reference is sometimes made to the “hand-grasping question” (hattha-gahaka
pañhā). It may be to this; but there is another mentioned at the end of the commentary
to the Dhātu-Vibhaṅga.
37.
The allusion seems to be to the bases of mastery (abhibhāyatana—or better,
bases for transcendence); see M II l3 and M-a III 257f.; but see §60.
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This is the section dealing with mindfulness occupied with the body in the
detailed treatise.
[(9) MINDFULNESS OF BREATHING]
145.
Now comes the description of the development of mindfulness of breathing
as a meditation subject. It has been recommended by the Blessed One thus:
“And, bhikkhus, this concentration through mindfulness of breathing, when
developed and practiced much, is both peaceful and sublime, it is an
unadulterated blissful abiding, and it banishes at once and stills evil unprofitable
thoughts as soon as they arise” (S V 321; Vin III 70).
[Text]
It has been described by the Blessed One as having sixteen bases thus: “And
how developed, bhikkhus, how practiced much, is concentration through
mindfulness of breathing both peaceful and sublime, an unadulterated blissful
abiding, banishing at once and stilling evil unprofitable thoughts as soon as
they arise?
“Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu, gone to the forest or to the root of a tree or to an
empty place, sits down; having folded his legs crosswise, set his body erect,
established mindfulness in front of him, [267] ever mindful he breathes in,
mindful he breathes out.
“(i) Breathing in long, he knows: ‘I breathe in long;’ or breathing out long, he
knows: ‘I breathe out long.’ (ii) Breathing in short, he knows: ‘I breathe in short;’
or breathing out short, he knows: ‘I breathe out short.’ (iii) He trains thus: ‘I shall
breathe in experiencing the whole body;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out
experiencing the whole body.’ (iv) He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in tranquilizing
the bodily formation;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out tranquilizing the bodily
formation.’
“(v) He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in experiencing happiness;’ he trains
thus: ‘I shall breathe out experiencing happiness.’ (vi) He trains thus: ‘I shall
breathe in experiencing bliss;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out experiencing
bliss.’ (vii) He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in experiencing the mental formation;’
he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out experiencing the mental formation.’ (viii) He
trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in tranquilizing the mental formation;’ he trains
thus: ‘I shall breathe out tranquilizing the mental formation.’
“(ix) He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in experiencing the [manner of]
consciousness;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out experiencing the [manner of]
consciousness.’ (x) He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in gladdening the [manner
of] consciousness;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out gladdening the [manner
of] consciousness.’ (xi) He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in concentrating the
[manner of] consciousness;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out concentrating the
[manner of] consciousness.’ (xii) He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in liberating the
[manner of] consciousness;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out liberating the
[manner of] consciousness.’
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“(xiii) He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in contemplating impermanence;’ he
trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out contemplating impermanence.’ (xiv) He trains
thus: ‘I shall breathe in contemplating fading away;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall
breathe out contemplating fading away.’ (xv) He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in
contemplating cessation;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out contemplating
cessation.’ (xvi) He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in contemplating relinquishment;’
he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out contemplating relinquishment’ (S V 321–22).
146.
The description [of development] is complete in all respects, however,
only if it is given in due course after a commentary on the text. So it is given here
(§186) introduced by a commentary on the [first part of the] text.
[Word Commentary]
And how developed, bhikkhus, how practiced much, is concentration through
mindfulness of breathing: here in the first place how is a question showing desire
to explain in detail the development of concentration through mindfulness of
breathing in its various forms. Developed, bhikkhus, … is concentration through
mindfulness of breathing: this shows the thing that is being asked about out of
desire to explain it in its various forms. How practiced much … as soon as they
arise?: here too the same explanation applies.
147.
Herein,  developed  means aroused or increased, concentration through
mindfulness of breathing (lit. “breathing-mindfulness concentration”) is either
concentration associated with mindfulness that discerns breathing, or it is
concentration on mindfulness of breathing. Practiced much: practiced again and again.
148.
Both peaceful and sublime (santo c’ eva paṇīto ca): it is peaceful in both
ways and sublime in both ways; the two words should each be understood as
governed by the word “both” (eva). What is meant? Unlike foulness, which as
a meditation subject is peaceful and sublime only by penetration, but is
neither (n’ eva) peaceful nor sublime in its object since its object [in the learning
stage] is gross, and [after that] its object is repulsiveness—unlike that, this is
not unpeaceful or unsublime in any way, but on the contrary it is peaceful,
stilled and quiet both on account of the peacefulness of its object and on
account of the peacefulness of that one of its factors called penetration. And
it is sublime, something one cannot have enough of, both on account of the
sublimeness of its object and on [268] account of the sublimeness of the
aforesaid factor. Hence it is called “both peaceful and sublime.”
149.
It is an unadulterated blissful abiding: it has no adulteration, thus it is
unadulterated; it is unalloyed, unmixed, particular, special. Here it is not a
question of peacefulness to be reached through preliminary work [as with the
kasiṇas] or through access [as with foulness, for instance]. It is peaceful and
sublime in its own individual essence too starting with the very first attention
given to it. But some38 say that it is “unadulterated” because it is unalloyed,
38. “‘Some’ is said with reference to the inmates of the Uttara (Northern) monastery
[in Anurādhapura]” (Vism-mhṭ 256).
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possessed of nutritive value and sweet in its individual essence too. So it should
be understood to be “unadulterated” and a “blissful abiding” since it leads to
the obtaining of bodily and mental bliss with every moment of absorption.
150.
As soon as they arise: whenever they are not suppressed. Evil: bad.
Unprofitable  (akusala)  thoughts: thoughts produced by unskilfulness (akosalla).  It
banishes at once: it banishes, suppresses, at that very moment. Stills (vūpasameti):
it thoroughly calms (suṭṭhu upasameti); or else, when eventually brought to
fulfilment by the noble path, it cuts off, because of partaking of penetration; it
tranquilizes, is what is meant.
151.
In brief, however, the meaning here is this: “Bhikkhus, in what way, in
what manner, by what system, is concentration through mindfulness of breathing
developed, in what way is it practiced much, that it is both peaceful … as soon as
they arise?”
152.
He now said, “Here, bhikkhus,” etc., giving the meaning of that in detail.
Herein,  here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu means: bhikkhus, in this dispensation a
bhikkhu. For this word here  signifies the [Buddha’s] dispensation as the
prerequisite for a person to produce concentration through mindfulness of
breathing in all its modes,39 and it denies that such a state exists in any other
dispensation. For this is said: “Bhikkhus, only here is there an ascetic, here a
second ascetic, here a third ascetic, here a fourth ascetic; other dispensations are
devoid of ascetics” (M I 63; A II 238).40 That is why it was said above “in this
dispensation a bhikkhu.”
153.
Gone to the forest … or to an empty place: this signifies that he has found an
abode favourable to the development of concentration through mindfulness of
breathing. For this bhikkhu’s mind has long been dissipated among visible
data, etc., as its object, and it does not want to mount the object of concentration-
through-mindfulness-of-breathing; it runs off the track like a chariot harnessed
to a wild ox.41 Now, suppose a cowherd [269] wanted to tame a wild calf that had
been reared on a wild cow’s milk, he would take it away from the cow and tie it
up apart with a rope to a stout post dug into the ground; then the calf might
dash to and fro, but being unable to get away, it would eventually sit down or lie
down by the post. So too, when a bhikkhu wants to tame his own mind which
has long been spoilt by being reared on visible data, etc., as object for its food
and drink, he should take it away from visible data, etc., as object and bring it
into the forest or to the root of a tree or to an empty place and tie it up there to the
post of in-breaths and out-breaths with the rope of mindfulness. And so his
mind may then dash to and fro when it no longer gets the objects it was formerly
39. “The words ‘in all its aspects’ refer to the sixteen bases; for these are only found
in total in this dispensation. When outsiders know mindfulness of breathing they
only know the first four modes” (Vism-mhṭ 257).
40.
“‘The ascetic’ is a stream-enterer, the ‘second ascetic’ is a once-returner, the
‘third ascetic’ is a non-returner, the ‘fourth ascetic’ is an Arahant” (M-a II 4).
41. Kūṭa—“wild”: PED, this ref. gives “useless,” which misses the point. Cf. M-a II 82;
IV 198.
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used to, but being unable to break the rope of mindfulness and get away, it sits
down, lies down, by that object under the influence of access and absorption.
Hence the Ancients said:
154.
“Just as a man who tames a calf
Would tie it to a post, so here
Should his own mind by mindfulness
Be firmly to the object tied.”
This is how an abode is favourable to his development. Hence it was said
above: “This signifies that he has found an abode favourable to the development
of concentration through mindfulness of breathing.”
155. Or alternatively, this mindfulness of breathing as a meditation subject—
which is foremost among the various meditation subjects of all Buddhas, [some]
Paccekabuddhas and [some] Buddhas’ disciples as a basis for attaining
distinction and abiding in bliss here and now—is not easy to develop without
leaving the neighbourhood of villages, which resound with the noises of women,
men, elephants, horses, etc., noise being a thorn to jhāna (see A V 135), whereas
in the forest away from a village a meditator can at his ease set about discerning
this meditation subject and achieve the fourth jhāna in mindfulness of breathing;
and then, by making that same jhāna the basis for comprehension of formations
[with insight] (XX.2f.), he can reach Arahantship, the highest fruit. That is why
the Blessed One said “gone to the forest,” etc., in pointing out a favourable
abode for him.
156.
For the Blessed One is like a master of the art of building sites (see D I 9,
12; II 87). [270] As the master of the art of building sites surveys the proposed
site for a town, thoroughly examines it, and then gives his directions, “Build the
town here,” and when the town is safely finished, he receives great honour from
the royal family, so the Blessed One examines an abode as to its suitability for the
meditator, and he directs, “Devote yourself to the meditation subject here,” and
later on, when the meditator has devoted himself to the meditation subject and
has reached Arahantship and says, “The Blessed One is indeed fully
enlightened,” the Blessed One receives great honour.
157.
And this bhikkhu is compared to a leopard. For just as a great leopard
king lurks in a grass wilderness or a jungle wilderness or a rock wilderness in
the forest and seizes wild beasts—the wild buffalo, wild ox, boar, etc.—so too,
the bhikkhu who devotes himself to his meditation subject in the forest, etc.,
should be understood to seize successively the paths of stream-entry, once-return,
non-return, and Arahantship; and the noble fruitions as well. Hence the Ancients
said:
“For as the leopard by his lurking [in the forest] seizes beasts
So also will this Buddhas’ son, with insight gifted,
strenuous,
By his retreating to the forest seize the highest fruit
of all” (Mil 369).
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So the Blessed One said “gone to the forest,” etc., to point out a forest abode as
a place likely to hasten his advancement.
158.
Herein, gone to the forest is gone to any kind of forest possessing the bliss
of seclusion among the kinds of forests characterized thus: “Having gone out
beyond the boundary post, all that is forest” (Paṭis I 176; Vibh 251), and “A forest
abode is five hundred bow lengths distant” (Vin IV 183). To the root of a tree: gone
to the vicinity of a tree. To an empty place: gone to an empty, secluded space. And
here he can be said to have gone to an “empty place” if he has gone to any of the
remaining seven kinds of abode (resting place).42 [271]
159.
Having thus indicated an abode that is suitable to the three seasons,
suitable to humour and temperament,43 and favourable to the development of
mindfulness of breathing, he then said sits down, etc., indicating a posture that
is peaceful and tends neither to idleness nor to agitation. Then he said having
folded his legs crosswise, etc., to show firmness in the sitting position, easy occurrence
of the in-breaths and out-breaths, and the means for discerning the object.
160.
Herein, crosswise is the sitting position with the thighs fully locked. Folded:
having locked. Set his body erect: having placed the upper part of the body erect
with the eighteen backbones resting end to end. For when he is seated like this,
his skin, flesh and sinews are not twisted, and so the feelings that would arise
moment by moment if they were twisted do not arise. That being so, his mind
becomes unified, and the meditation subject, instead of collapsing, attains to
growth and increase.
161.
Established mindfulness in front of him (parimukhaṃ satiṃ upaṭṭhapetvā) =
having placed (ṭhapayitvā) mindfulness (satiṃ) facing the meditation subject
(kammaṭṭhānābhimukhaṃ). Or alternatively, the meaning can be treated here too
according to the method of explanation given in the Paṭisambhidā, which is
this: Pari has the sense of control (pariggaha), mukhaṃ (lit. mouth) has the sense
of outlet (niyyāna),  sati  has the sense of establishment (upaṭṭhāna); that is why
parimukhaṃ satiṃ (‘mindfulness as a controlled outlet’) is said” (Paṭis I 176). The
meaning of it in brief is: Having made mindfulness the outlet (from opposition,
forgetfulness being thereby] controlled.44
162.
Ever mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out: having seated himself
thus, having established mindfulness thus, the bhikkhu does not abandon that
mindfulness; ever mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out; he is a mindful
worker, is what is meant.
42.
The nine kinds of abode (resting place) are the forest and the root of a tree
already mentioned, and a rock, a hill cleft, a mountain cave, a charnel ground, a jungle
thicket, an open space, a heap of straw (M I 181).
43. “In the hot season the forest is favourable, in the cold season the root of a tree,
in the rainy season an empty place. For one of phlegmatic humour, phlegmatic by
nature, the forest is favourable, for one of bilious humour the root of a tree, for one of
windy humour an empty place. For one of deluded temperament the forest, for one
of hating temperament the root of a tree, for one of greedy temperament an empty
place” (Vism-mhṭ 258).
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[Word Commentary Continued—First Tetrad]
163. (i) Now, breathing in long, etc., is said in order to show the different ways in
which he is a mindful worker. For in the Paṭisambhidā, in the exposition of the
clause, “Ever mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out,” this is said: “He
is a mindful worker in thirty-two ways: (1) when he knows unification of mind
and non-distraction by means of a long in-breath, mindfulness is established in
him; owing to that mindfulness and that knowledge he is a mindful worker. (2)
When he knows unification of mind and non-distraction by means of a long
out-breath … (31) by means of breathing in contemplating relinquishment …
(32) When he knows unification of mind and non-distraction by means of
breathing out contemplating relinquishment, mindfulness is established in him;
owing to that mindfulness and that knowledge he is a mindful worker” (Paṭis I
176).
164.
Herein,  breathing in long (assasanto) is producing a long in-breath. [272]
“Assāsa  is the wind issuing out; passāsa  is the wind entering in” is said in the
Vinaya Commentary. But in the Suttanta Commentaries it is given in the opposite
sense. Herein, when any infant comes out from the mother’s womb, first the
wind from within goes out and subsequently the wind from without enters in
with fine dust, strikes the palate and is extinguished [with the infant’s sneezing].
This, firstly, is how assāsa  and  passāsa  should be understood.
165.
But their length and shortness should be understood by extent (addhāna).
For just as water or sand that occupies an extent of space is called a “long water,”
a “long sand,” a “short water,” a “short sand,” so in the case of elephants’ and
snakes’ bodies the in-breaths and out-breaths regarded as particles45 slowly fill
the long extent, in other words, their persons, and slowly go out again. That is
why they are called “long.” They rapidly fill a short extent, in other words, the
person of a dog, a hare, etc., and rapidly go out again. That is why they are
called “short.”
166.
And in the case of human beings some breathe in and breathe out long, by
extent of time, as elephants, snakes, etc., do, while others breathe in and breathe
out short in that way as dogs, hares, etc., do. Of these, therefore, the breaths that
travel over a long extent in entering in and going out are to be understood as
long in time; and the breaths that travel over a little extent in entering in and
going out, as short in time.
167.
Now, this bhikkhu knows “I breathe in, I breathe out, long” while breathing
in and breathing out long in nine ways. And the development of the foundation
of mindfulness consisting in contemplation of the body should be understood
to be perfected in one aspect in him who knows thus, according as it is said in
the Paṭisambhidā:
44. The amplification is from Vism-mhṭ 258.
45. “‘Regarded as particles’: as a number of groups (kalāpa)” (Vism-mhṭ 259). This
conception of the occurrence of breaths is based on the theory of motion as “successive
arisings in adjacent locations” (desantaruppatti); see note 54 below. For “groups” see
XX.2f.
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168.
“How, breathing in long, does he know: ‘I breathe in long,’ breathing out
long, does he know: ‘I breathe out long?’ (1) He breathes in a long in-breath
reckoned as an extent. (2) He breathes out a long out-breath reckoned as an
extent. (3) He breathes in and breathes out long in-breaths and out-breaths
reckoned as an extent. As he breathes in and breathes out long in-breaths and
out-breaths reckoned as an extent, zeal arises.46 (4) Through zeal he breathes in
a long in-breath more subtle than before reckoned as an extent. (5) Through zeal
he breathes out a long out-breath more subtle than before reckoned as an extent.
(6) Through zeal he breathes in and breathes out long in-breaths and out-breaths
more subtle than before reckoned as an extent. As, through zeal, he breathes in
and breathes out long in-breaths and out-breaths more subtle than before
reckoned as an extent, gladness arises. [273] (7) Through gladness he breathes
in a long in-breath more subtle than before reckoned as an extent. (8) Through
gladness he breathes out a long out-breath more subtle than before reckoned as
an extent. (9) Through gladness he breathes in and breathes out long in-breaths
and out-breaths more subtle than before reckoned as an extent. As, through
gladness, he breathes in and breathes out long in-breaths and out-breaths more
subtle than before reckoned as an extent, his mind turns away from the long in-
breaths and out-breaths and equanimity is established.
“Long in-breaths and out-breaths in these nine ways are a body. The
establishment (foundation)47 is mindfulness. The contemplation is knowledge.
46. “‘Zeal arises’: additional zeal, which is profitable and has the characteristic of
desire to act, arises due to the satisfaction obtained when the meditation has brought
progressive improvement. ‘More subtle than before’: more subtle than before the
already-described zeal arose; for the breaths occur more subtly owing to the
meditation’s influence in tranquilizing the body’s distress and disturbance. ‘Gladness
arises’: fresh happiness arises of the kinds classed as minor, etc., which is the gladness
that accompanies the consciousness occupied with the meditation and is due to the
fact that the peacefulness of the object increases with the growing subtlety of the
breaths and to the fact that the meditation subject keeps to its course. ‘The mind turns
away’: the mind turns away from the breaths, which have reached the point at which
their manifestation needs investigating (see §177) owing to their gradually increasing
subtlety. But some say (see Paṭis-a Ce, p. 351): ‘It is when the in-breaths and out-
breaths have reached a subtler state owing to the influence of the meditation and the
counterpart sign; for when that has arisen, the mind turns away from the normal
breaths.’ ‘Equanimity is established’: when concentration, classed as access and
absorption, has arisen in that counterpart sign, then, since there is no need for further
interest to achieve jhāna, onlooking (equanimity) ensues, which is specific neutrality”
(Vism-mhṭ 260).
47. “‘In these nine ways’: that occur in the nine ways just described. ‘Long in-breaths
and out-breaths are a body’: the in-breaths and out-breaths, which exist as particles
though they have the aspect of length, constitute a ‘body’ in the sense of a mass. And
here the sign that arises with the breaths as its support is also called ‘in-breath and
out-breath.’ (cf. e.g. §206) ‘The establishment (foundation) is mindfulness’: mindfulness
is called ‘establishment (foundation)—(upaṭṭhāna)’ since it approaches (upagantvā) the
object and remains (tiṭṭhati) there. ‘The contemplation is knowledge’: contemplation
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The body is the establishment (foundation), but it is not the mindfulness.
Mindfulness is both the establishment (foundation) and the mindfulness. By
means of that mindfulness and that knowledge he contemplates that body.
That is why ‘development of the foundation (establishment) of mindfulness
consisting in contemplation of the body as a body’ (see D II 290) is said” (Paṭis
I 177).
169.
(ii) The same method of explanation applies also in the case of short
breaths. But there is this difference. While in the former case “a long in-breath
reckoned as an extent” is said, here “a short in-breath reckoned as a little
of the sign by means of serenity, and contemplation of mentality-materiality by defining
with insight the in-breaths and out-breaths and the body, which is their support, as
materiality, and the consciousness and the states associated with it as the immaterial
(mentality), are knowledge, in other words, awareness of what is actually there (has
actually become). ‘The body is the establishment (foundation)’: there is that body, and
mindfulness approaches it by making it its object and remains there, thus it is called
‘establishment.’ And the words ‘the body is the establishment’ include the other (the
mental) kind of body too since the above-mentioned comprehension by insight is
needed here too. ‘But it is not the mindfulness’: that body is not called ‘mindfulness’
[though it is called ‘the establishment’]. ‘Mindfulness is both the establishment
(foundation) and the mindfulness,’ being so both in the sense of remembering (sarana)
and in the sense of establishing (upatiṭṭhana). ‘By means of that mindfulness’: by
means of that mindfulness already mentioned. ‘And that knowledge’: and the
knowledge already mentioned. ‘That body’: that in-breath-and-out-breath body and
that material body which is its support. ‘He contemplates (anupassati)’: he keeps re-
seeing (anu anu passati) with jhāna knowledge and with insight knowledge. ‘That is
why “Development of the foundation (establishment) of mindfulness consisting in
contemplation of the body as a body” is said’: in virtue of that contemplation this is
said to be development of the foundation (establishment) of mindfulness consisting
in contemplation of the body as a body of the kind already stated. What is meant is
this: the contemplation of the body as an in-breath-and-out-breath body as stated and
of the physical body that is its [material] support, which is not contemplation of
permanence, etc., in a body whose individual essence is impermanent, etc.—like the
contemplation of a waterless mirage as water—but which is rather contemplation of
its essence as impermanent, painful, not-self, and foul, according as is appropriate, or
alternatively, which is contemplation of it as a mere body only, by not contemplating it
as containing anything that can be apprehended as ‘I’ or ‘mine’ or ‘woman’ or ‘man’—
all this is ‘contemplation of the body.’ The mindfulness associated with that
contemplation of the body, which mindfulness is itself the establishment, is the
‘establishment.’ The development, the increase, of that is the ‘development of the
foundation (establishment) of mindfulness consisting in contemplation of the body.’”
(Vism-mhṭ 261)
The compound satipaṭṭhāna is derived by the Paṭisambhidā from sati (mindfulness)
and  upaṭṭhāna (establishment—Paṭis I 182), but in the Commentaries the resolution
into sati and paṭṭhāna (foundation) is preferred. (M-a I 237–38) In the 118th Sutta of the
Majjhima Nikāya the first tetrad is called development of the first foundation of
mindfulness, or contemplation of the body. (MN 10; DN 22) The object of the
Paṭisambhidā passage quoted is to demonstrate this.
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[duration]” (Paṭis I 182) is given. So it must be construed as “short” as far as the
phrase “That is why ‘development of the foundation (establishment) of
mindfulness consisting in contemplation of the body as a body’ is said” (Paṭis I
183).
170.
So it should be understood that it is when this bhikkhu knows in-breaths
and out-breaths in these nine ways as “a [long] extent” and as “a little [duration]”
that “breathing in long, he knows ‘I breathe in long;’ … breathing out short, he
knows ‘I breathe out short’ is said of him. And when he knows thus:
“The long kind and the short as well,
The in-breath and the out-breath too,
Such then are the four kinds that happen
At the bhikkhu’s nose tip here.”
171. (iii)  He trains thus: “I shall breathe in … I shall breathe out experiencing the
whole body”: he trains thus: “I shall breathe in making known, making plain,
the beginning, middle and end48 of the entire in-breath body. I shall breathe out
making known, making plain, the beginning, middle and end of the entire out-
breath body,” thus he trains. Making them known, making them plain, in this
way he both breathes in and breathes out with consciousness associated with
knowledge. That is why it is said, “He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in … shall
breathe out …’”
172.
To one bhikkhu the beginning of the in-breath body or the out-breath
body, distributed in particles, [that is to say, regarded as successive arisings (see
note 45)] is plain, but not the middle or the end; he is only able to discern the
beginning and has difficulty with the middle and the end. To another the middle
is plain, not the beginning or the end; he is only able to discern the middle and
has difficulty with the beginning and the end. To another the end is plain, not
the beginning or the middle; he is only able to discern the end [274] and has
difficulty with the beginning and the middle. To yet another all stages are plain;
he is able to discern them all and has no difficulty with any of them. Pointing out
that one should be like the last-mentioned bhikkhu, he said: “He trains thus: ‘I
shall breathe in … shall breathe out experiencing the whole body.’”
173.
Herein, he trains: he strives, he endeavours in this way. Or else the restraint
here in one such as this is training in the higher virtue, his consciousness is
training in the higher consciousness, and his understanding is training in the
higher understanding (see Paṭis I 184). So he trains in, repeats, develops,
repeatedly practices, these three kinds of training, on that object, by means of
that mindfulness, by means of that attention. This is how the meaning should be
regarded here.
48. The beginning, middle and end are described in §197, and the way they should
be treated is given in §199–201. What is meant is that the meditator should know what
they are and be aware of them without his mindfulness leaving the tip of the nose to
follow after the breaths inside the body or outside it, speculating on what becomes of
them.
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174.
Herein, in the first part of the system (nos. i and ii)49 he should only
breathe in and breathe out and not do anything else at all, and it is only afterwards
that he should apply himself to the arousing of knowledge, and so on.
Consequently the present tense is used here in the text, “He knows: ‘I breathe in’
… he knows: ‘I breathe out.’” But the future tense in the passage beginning “I
shall breathe in experiencing the whole body” should be understood as used in
order to show that the aspect of arousing knowledge, etc., has to be undertaken
from then on.
175. (iv) He trains thus: “I shall breathe in … shall breathe out tranquilizing
the bodily formation;” he trains thus: “I shall breathe in, shall breathe out
tranquilizing, completely tranquilizing, stopping, stilling, the gross bodily
formation50”.
176.
And here both the gross and subtle state and also [progressive]
tranquilizing should be understood. For previously, at the time when the bhikkhu
has still not discerned [the meditation subject], his body and his mind are
disturbed and so they are gross. And while the grossness of the body and the
mind has still not subsided the in-breaths and out-breaths are gross. They get
stronger; his nostrils become inadequate, and he keeps breathing in and out
through his mouth. But they become quiet and still when his body and mind
have been discerned. When they are still then the in-breaths and out-breaths
occur so subtly that he has to investigate whether they exist or not.
177.
Suppose a man stands still after running, or descending from a hill, or
putting down a big load from his head, then his in-breaths and out-breaths are
gross, his nostrils become inadequate, and he keeps on breathing in and out
through his mouth. But when he has rid himself of his fatigue and has bathed
and drunk [275] and put a wet cloth on his heart, and is lying in the cool shade,
then his in-breaths and out-breaths eventually occur so subtly that he has to
investigate whether they exist or not; so too, previously, at the time when the
bhikkhu has still not discerned, … he has to investigate whether they exist or not.
178.
Why is that? Because previously, at the time when he has still not discerned,
there is no concern in him, no reaction, no attention, no reviewing, to the effect
that “I am [progressively] tranquilizing each grosser bodily formation.” But
when he has discerned, there is. So his bodily formation at the time when he has
49. “‘In the first part of the system’: in the first part of the system of development;
in the first two bases, is what is intended. Of course, arousing of knowledge must be
admitted to take place here too because of the presence of awareness of the length
and shortness of the breaths as they actually are (as they actually become); and it is
not hard to do that, for it is merely the taking account of them as they occur. That is
why it is put in the present tense here. But what follows is as hard as for a man to walk
on a razor’s edge; which is why the future tense is used for the subsequent stages in
order to indicate the need for exceptional prior effort” (Vism-mhṭ 263).
50. “‘Bodily formation’: the in-breath and out-breath (see M I 301). For although it is
consciousness-originated, it is nevertheless called ‘bodily formation’ since its existence
is bound up with the kamma-born body and it is formed with that as the means”
(Vism-mhṭ 263).
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discerned is subtle in comparison with that at the time when he has not. Hence
the Ancients said:
“The mind and body are disturbed,
And then in excess it occurs;
But when the body is undisturbed,
Then it with subtlety occurs.”
179. In discerning [the meditation subject the formation] is gross, and it is subtle
[by comparison] in the first-jhāna access; also it is gross in that, and subtle [by
comparison] in the first jhāna; in the first jhāna and second-jhāna access it is gross,
and in the second jhāna subtle; in the second jhāna and third-jhāna access it is
gross, and in the third jhāna subtle; in the third jhāna and fourth-jhāna access it is
gross, and in the fourth jhāna it is so exceedingly subtle that it even reaches cessation.
This is the opinion of the Dīgha and Saṃyutta reciters. But the Majjhima reciters
have it that it is subtler in each access than in the jhāna below too in this way: In the
first jhāna it is gross, and in the second-jhāna access it is subtle [by comparison, and
so on]. It is, however, the opinion of all that the bodily formation occurring before the
time of discerning becomes tranquilized at the time of discerning, and the bodily
formation at the time of discerning becomes tranquilized in the first-jhāna access …
and the bodily formation occurring in the fourth-jhāna access becomes tranquilized
in the fourth jhāna. This is the method of explanation in the case of serenity.
180.
But in the case of insight, the bodily formation occurring at the time of not
discerning is gross, and in discerning the primary elements it is [by comparison]
subtle; that also is gross, and in discerning derived materiality it is subtle; that
also is gross, and in discerning all materiality it is subtle; that also is gross, and
in discerning the immaterial it is subtle; that also is gross, and in discerning the
material and immaterial it is subtle; that also is gross, and in discerning conditions
it is subtle; that also is gross, and in seeing mentality-materiality with its
conditions it is subtle; that also is gross, and in insight that has the characteristics
[of impermanence, etc.,] as its object it is subtle; that also is gross in weak insight
while in strong insight it is subtle.
Herein, the tranquilizing should be understood as [the relative tranquillity]
of the subsequent compared with the previous. Thus should the gross and subtle
state, and the [progressive] tranquilizing, be understood here. [276]
181.
But the meaning of this is given in the Paṭisambhidā together with the
objection and clarification thus:
“How is it that he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in … shall breathe out
tranquilizing the bodily formation? What are the bodily formations? Long in-
breaths … out-breaths [experiencing the whole body] belong to the body; these
things, being bound up with the body, are bodily formations;’ he trains in
tranquilizing, stopping, stilling, those bodily formations.
“When there are such bodily formations whereby there is bending backwards,
sideways in all directions, and forwards, and perturbation, vacillation, moving
and shaking of the body, he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in tranquilizing the
bodily formation;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out tranquilizing the bodily
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formation.’ When there are such bodily formations whereby there is no bending
backwards, sideways in all directions, and forwards, and no perturbation,
vacillation, moving and shaking of the body, quietly, subtly, he trains thus: ‘I
shall breathe in tranquilizing the bodily formation;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe
out tranquilizing the bodily formation.’
182.
“[Objection:] So then, he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in tranquilizing the
bodily formation;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out tranquilizing the bodily
formation’: that being so, there is no production of awareness of wind, and there
is no production of in-breaths and out-breaths, and there is no production of
mindfulness of breathing, and there is no production of concentration through
mindfulness of breathing, and consequently the wise neither enter into nor
emerge from that attainment.
183.
“[Clarification:] So then, he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in tranquilizing
the bodily formation;’ he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out tranquilizing the bodily
formation’: that being so, there is production of awareness of wind, and there is
production of in-breaths and out-breaths, and there is production of mindfulness
of breathing, and there is production of concentration through mindfulness of
breathing, and consequently the wise enter into and emerge from that attainment.
184.
“Like what? Just as when a gong is struck. At first gross sounds occur
and consciousness [occurs] because the sign of the gross sounds is well
apprehended, well attended to, well observed; and when the gross sounds have
ceased, then afterwards faint sounds occur and [consciousness occurs] because
the sign of the faint sounds is well apprehended, well attended to, well observed;
and when the faint sounds have ceased, then [277] afterwards consciousness
occurs because it has the sign of the faint sounds as its object51—so too, at first
gross in-breaths and out-breaths occur and [consciousness does not become
distracted] because the sign of the gross in-breaths and out-breaths is well
apprehended, well attended to, well observed; and when the gross in-breaths
and out-breaths have ceased, then afterwards faint in-breaths and out-breaths
occur and [consciousness does not become distracted] because the sign of the
faint in-breaths and out-breaths is well apprehended, well attended to, well
observed; and when the faint in-breaths and out-breaths have ceased, then
afterwards consciousness does not become distracted because it has the sign of
the faint in-breaths and out-breaths as its object.
“That being so, there is production of awareness of wind, and there is
production of in-breaths and out-breaths, and there is production of mindfulness
of breathing, and there is production of concentration through mindfulness of
breathing, and consequently the wise enter into and emerge from that attainment.
51. “The faint sound itself as a sign is the ‘sign of the faint sounds’; it has that as its
object. What is meant? Of course, the faint sounds have ceased too then; but the sign
of the sounds has been well apprehended and so consciousness occurs with the sign
of fainter sounds as its object. For as from the outset he ascertains with undistracted
consciousness the sign of each sound as it ceases, eventually his consciousness occurs
in the end with the sign of ultra-subtle sounds too as its object” (Vism-mhṭ 266).
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185.
“In-breaths and out-breaths tranquilizing the bodily formation are a body.
The establishment (foundation) is mindfulness. The contemplation is knowledge.
The body is the establishment (foundation), but it is not the mindfulness.
Mindfulness is both the establishment (foundation) and the mindfulness. By
means of that mindfulness and that knowledge he contemplates that body. That
is why ‘development of the foundation (establishment) of mindfulness consisting
in contemplation of the body as a body’ is said” (Paṭis I 184–186).
This, in the first place, is the consecutive word commentary here on the first
tetrad, which deals with contemplation of the body.
[Method of Development]
186.
The first tetrad is set forth as a meditation subject for a beginner;52 but the
other three tetrads are [respectively] set forth as the contemplations of feeling, of
[the manner of] consciousness, and of mental objects, for one who has already
attained jhāna in this tetrad. So if a clansman who is a beginner wants to develop
this meditation subject, and through insight based on the fourth jhāna produced
in breathing, to reach Arahantship together with the discriminations, he should
first do all the work connected with the purification of virtue, etc., in the way
already described, after which he should learn the meditation subject in five
stages from a teacher of the kind already described.
187.
Here are the five stages: learning, questioning, establishing, absorption,
characteristic.
Herein, learning is learning the meditation subject. Questioning is questioning
about the meditation subject. Establishing is establishing the meditation subject.
Absorption [278] is the absorption of the meditation subject. Characteristic is the
characteristic of the meditation subject; what is meant is that it is the ascertaining
of the meditation subject’s individual essence thus: “This meditation subject
has such a characteristic.”
188.
Learning the meditation subject in the five stages in this way, he neither
tires himself nor worries the teacher. So in giving this meditation subject
consisting in mindfulness of breathing attention, he can live either with the
teacher or elsewhere in an abode of the kind already described, learning the
meditation subject in the five stages thus, getting a little expounded at a time
and taking a long time over reciting it. He should sever the minor impediments.
After finishing the work connected with the meal and getting rid of any
dizziness due to the meal, he should seat himself comfortably. Then, making
sure he is not confused about even a single word of what he has learned from
the teacher, he should cheer his mind by recollecting the special qualities of
the Three Jewels.
52. “As a meditation subject for a beginner” is said with reference to the serenity
(i.e. jhāna) meditation subject; but the insight meditation subject applies to the other
tetrads too” (Vism-mhṭ 266).
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189.
Here are the stages in giving attention to it: (1) counting, (2) connection,
(3) touching, (4) fixing, (5) observing, (6) turning away, (7) purification, and (8)
looking back on these.
Herein,  counting  is just counting, connection  is carrying on, touching  is the
place touched [by the breaths], fixing is absorption, observing is insight, turning
away  is the path, purification  is fruition, looking back on these is reviewing.
190.
1. Herein, this clansman who is a beginner should first give attention to
this meditation subject by counting. And when counting, he should not stop
short of five or go beyond ten or make any break in the series. By stopping short
of five his thoughts get excited in the cramped space, like a herd of cattle shut in
a cramped pen. By going beyond ten his thoughts take the number [rather than
the breaths] for their support. By making a break in the series he wonders if the
meditation subject has reached completion or not. So he should do his counting
without those faults.
191.
When counting, he should at first do it slowly [that is, late] as a grain
measurer does. For a grain measurer, having filled his measure, says “One,” and
empties it, and then refilling it, he goes on saying ‘”One, one” while removing
any rubbish he may have noticed. And the same with “Two, two” and so on. So,
taking the in-breath or the out-breath, whichever appears [most plainly], he
should begin with “One, one” [279] and count up to “Ten, ten,” noting each as
it occurs.
192.
As he does his counting in this way, the in-breaths and out-breaths become
evident to him as they enter in and issue out. Then he can leave off counting
slowly (late), like a grain measurer, and he can count quickly [that is, early] as a
cowherd does. For a skilled cowherd takes pebbles in his pocket and goes to the
cow pen in the morning, whip in hand; sitting on the bar of the gate, prodding
the cows in the back, he counts each one as it reaches the gate, saying “One,
two,” dropping a pebble for each. And the cows of the herd, which have been
spending the three watches of the night uncomfortably in the cramped space,
come out quickly in parties, jostling each other as they escape. So he counts
quickly (early) “Three, four, five” and so up to ten. In this way the in-breaths and
out-breaths, which had already become evident to him while he counted them in
the former way, now keep moving along quickly.
193.
Then, knowing that they keep moving along quickly, not apprehending
them either inside or outside [the body], but apprehending them just as they
reach the [nostril] door, he can do his counting quickly (early): “One, two, three,
four, five; one, two, three, four, five, six … seven … eight … nine … ten.” For as
long as the meditation subject is connected with counting it is with the help of
that very counting that the mind becomes unified, just as a boat in a swift current
is steadied with the help of a rudder.
194.
When he counts quickly, the meditation subject becomes apparent to him
as an uninterrupted process. Then, knowing that it is proceeding uninterruptedly,
he can count quickly (early) in the way just described, not discerning the wind
either inside or outside [the body]. For by bringing his consciousness inside
along with the incoming breath, it seems as if it were buffeted by the wind inside
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or filled with fat.53 By taking his consciousness outside along with the outgoing
breath, it gets distracted by the multiplicity of objects outside. However, his
development is successful when he fixes his mindfulness on the place touched
[by the breaths]. That is why it was said above: “He can count quickly (early) in
the way just described, not discerning the wind either inside or outside.”
195.
But how long is he to go on counting? Until, without counting, [280]
mindfulness remains settled on the in-breaths and out-breaths as its object. For
counting is simply a device for setting mindfulness on the in-breaths and out-
breaths as object by cutting off the external dissipation of applied thoughts.
196.
2. Having given attention to it in this way by counting, he should now do
so by connection. Connection is the uninterrupted following of the in-breaths and
out-breaths with mindfulness after counting has been given up. And that is not
by following after the beginning, the middle and the end.54
197.
The navel is the beginning of the wind issuing out, the heart is its middle
and the nose-tip is its end. The nose-tip is the beginning of the wind entering in,
the heart is its middle and the navel is its end. And if he follows after that, his
mind is distracted by disquiet and perturbation according as it is said: “When
he goes in with mindfulness after the beginning, middle, and end of the in-
breath, his mind being distracted internally, both his body and his mind are
disquieted and perturbed and shaky. When he goes out with mindfulness after
the beginning, middle and end of the out-breath, his mind being distracted
externally, both his body and his mind are disquieted and perturbed and shaky”
(Paṭis I 165).
3–4. So when he gives his attention to it by connection, he should do so not by
the beginning, middle and end, but rather by touching and by fixing.
198.
There is no attention to be given to it by touching separate from fixing as
there is by counting separate from connection. But when he is counting the
breaths in the place touched by each, he is giving attention to them by counting
53. “‘Buffeted by wind’: if he gives much attention to the wind that has gone inside,
that place seems to him as if it were buffeted by the wind, as if filled with fat” (Vism-
mhṭ 268). No further explanation is given.
54. “‘Following (anugamana)’ is occurring along with (anu anu pavattana), going after
(anugacchana), by means of mindfulness through making the breaths the object as
they occur, Hence he said, ‘And that is not by following after the beginning, middle
and end.’ ‘The navel is the beginning’ because of their first arising there. For the
notion of a beginning (ādi cintā) is here in the sense of first arising, not in the sense of
just arising [once only]. For they actually go on arising throughout [the whole length]
from the navel to the nose-tip; and wherever they arise, there in that same place they
dissolve, because there is no going (movement) of dhammas. The ordinary term
‘motion’ (gatisamaññā) refers to successive arisings in adjacent locations
(desantaruppatti) according to conditions. ‘The heart is the middle’: near the heart, just
above it is the middle. ‘The nose tip is the end’: the place where the nostrils are is the
end; that is the limit of the application of the ordinary term ‘in-breaths and out-
breaths,’ for it is accordingly that they are called ‘consciousness-originated,’ there
being no production externally of what is consciousness-originated” (Vism-mhṭ 268).
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and touching. When he has given up counting and is connecting them by
means of mindfulness in that same place and fixing consciousness by means of
absorption, then he is said to be giving his attention to them by connection,
touching and fixing. And the meaning of this may be understood through the
similes of the man who cannot walk and the gatekeeper given in the
commentaries, and through the simile of the saw given in the Paṭisambhidā.
199.
Here is the simile of the man who cannot walk: Just as a man unable to
walk, who is rocking a swing for the amusement of his children and their mother,
sits at the foot of the swing post and sees both ends and the middle of the swing
plank successively coming and going, [281] yet does not move from his place in
order to see both ends and the middle, so too, when a bhikkhu places himself
with mindfulness, as it were, at the foot of the post for anchoring [mindfulness]
and rocks the swing of the in-breaths and out-breaths; he sits down with
mindfulness on the sign at that same place, and follows with mindfulness the
beginning, middle and end of the in-breaths and out-breaths at the place touched
by them as they come and go; keeping his mind fixed there, he then sees them
without moving from his place in order to see them. This is the simile of the man
who cannot walk.
200.
This is the simile of the gatekeeper: Just as a gatekeeper does not examine
people inside and outside the town, asking, “Who are you? Where have you
come from? Where are you going? What have you got in your hand?”—for those
people are not his concern—but he does examine each man as he arrives at the
gate, so too, the incoming breaths that have gone inside and the outgoing breaths
that have gone outside are not this bhikkhu’s concern, but they are his concern
each time they arrive at the [nostril] gate itself.
201.
Then the simile of the saw should be understood from its beginning. For
this is said:
“Sign, in-breath, out-breath, are not object
Of a single consciousness;
By one who knows not these three things
Development is not obtained.
“Sign, in-breath, out-breath, are not object
Of a single consciousness;
By one who does know these three things
Development can be obtained.”
202.
“How is it that these three things are not the object of a single
consciousness, that they are nevertheless not unknown, that the mind does not
become distracted, that he manifests effort, carries out a task, and achieves an
effect?
“Suppose there were a tree trunk placed on a level piece of ground, and a man
cut it with a saw. The man’s mindfulness is established by the saw’s teeth where
they touch the tree trunk, without his giving attention to the saw’s teeth as they
approach and recede, though they are not unknown to him as they do so; and he
manifests effort, carries out a task, and achieves an effect. As the tree trunk
placed on the level piece of ground, so the sign for the anchoring of mindfulness.
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As the saw’s teeth, so the in-breaths and out-breaths. As the man’s mindfulness,
established by the saw’s teeth where they touch the tree trunk, without his
giving attention to the saw’s teeth as they approach and recede, though they are
not unknown to him as they do so, and so he manifests effort, carries out a task,
and achieves an effect, [282] so too, the bhikkhu sits, having established
mindfulness at the nose tip or on the upper lip, without giving attention to the
in-breaths and out-breaths as they approach and recede, though they are not
unknown to him as they do so, and he manifests effort, carries out a task, and
achieves an effect.
203. “‘Effort’: what is the effort? The body and the mind of one who is energetic
become wieldy—this is the effort. What is the task? Imperfections come to be
abandoned in one who is energetic, and his applied thoughts are stilled—this is
the task. What is the effect? Fetters come to be abandoned in one who is energetic,
and his inherent tendencies come to be done away with—this is the effect.
“So these three things are not the object of a single consciousness, and they
are nevertheless not unknown, and the mind does not become distracted, and he
manifests effort, carries out a task, and achieves an effect.
“Whose mindfulness of breathing in
And out is perfect, well developed,
And gradually brought to growth
According as the Buddha taught,
’Tis he illuminates the world
Just like the full moon free from cloud”55
This is the simile of the saw. But here it is precisely his not giving attention [to
the breaths] as [yet to] come and [already] gone56 that should be understood as
the purpose.
204.
When someone gives his attention to this meditation subject, sometimes it
is not long before the sign arises in him, and then the fixing, in other words,
absorption adorned with the rest of the jhāna factors, is achieved.
205.
After someone has given his attention to counting, then just as when a
body that is disturbed sits down on a bed or chair, the bed or chair sags down
and creaks and the cover gets rumpled, but when a body that is not disturbed
sits down, the bed or chair neither sags down nor creaks, the cover does not get
rumpled, and it is as though filled with cotton wool—why? because a body that
is not disturbed is light—so too, after he has given his attention to counting,
when the bodily disturbance has been stilled by the gradual cessation of gross
in-breaths and out-breaths, then both the body and the mind become light: the
physical body is as though it were ready to leap up into the air. [283]
206.
When his gross in-breaths and out breaths have ceased, his consciousness
occurs with the sign of the subtle in-breaths and out-breaths as its object. And
when that has ceased, it goes on occurring with the successively subtler signs
as its object. How?
55. Paṭis I 170–72; last line Dhp 172; whole verse Th 548.
56. Reading āgata-gata-vasena with Vism-mhṭ 271.
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207.
Suppose a man stuck a bronze bell with a big iron bar and at once a loud
sound arose, his consciousness would occur with the gross sound as its object;
then, when the gross sound had ceased, it would occur afterwards with the sign
of the subtle sound as its object; and when that had ceased, it would go on
occurring with the sign of the successively subtler sounds as its object. This is
how it should be understood. And this is given in detail in the passage
beginning, “Just as when a metal gong is struck” (§184).
208. For while other meditation subjects become clearer at each higher stage, this
one does not: in fact, as he goes on developing it, it becomes more subtle for him at
each higher stage, and it even comes to the point at which it is no longer manifest.
However, when it becomes unmanifest in this way, the bhikkhu should not
get up from his seat, shake out his leather mat, and go away. What should be
done? He should not get up with the idea “Shall I ask the teacher?” or “Is my
meditation subject lost?”; for by going away, and so disturbing his posture, the
meditation subject has to be started anew. So he should go on sitting as he was
and [temporarily] substitute the place [normally touched for the actual breaths
as the object of contemplation].57
209.
These are the means for doing it. The bhikkhu should recognize the
unmanifest state of the meditation subject and consider thus: “Where do these
in-breaths and out-breaths exist? Where do they not? In whom do they exist? In
whom not?” Then, as he considers thus, he finds that they do not exist in one
inside the mother’s womb, or in those drowned in water, or likewise in unconscious
beings,58 or in the dead, or in those attained to the fourth jhāna, or in those born
into a fine-material or immaterial existence, or in those attained to cessation [of
perception and feeling]. So he should apostrophize himself thus: “You with all
your wisdom are certainly not inside a mother’s womb or drowned in water or in
the unconscious existence or dead or attained to the fourth jhāna or born into
the fine-material or immaterial existence or attained to cessation. Those in-breaths
and out-breath are actually existent in you, only you are not able to discern them
because your understanding is dull.” Then, fixing his mind on the place
normally touched [by the breaths], he should proceed to give his attention to
that.
210.
These in-breaths and out-breaths occur striking the tip of the nose in a
long-nosed man [284] and the upper lip in a short-nosed man. So he should fix
the sign thus: “This is the place where they strike.” This was why the Blessed
One said: “Bhikkhus, I do not say of one who is forgetful, who is not fully aware,
[that he practices] development of mindfulness of breathing” (M III 84).
57. The point made here is that if the breaths themselves get temporarily too faint to
be observed, he should carry on by observing the tip of the nose where they normally
touch until they become apparent again. He brings the meditation back to mind for
the moment, “as the place (desato)” where they were last noticed, instead of “as
breaths,” which have temporarily vanished.
58.
Those born in the world of unconscious beings in the fine-material Brahmā
world (D I 28).
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211.
Although any meditation subject, no matter what, is successful only in
one who is mindful and fully aware, yet any meditation subject other than this
one gets more evident as he goes on giving it his attention. But this mindfulness
of breathing is difficult, difficult to develop, a field in which only the minds of
Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas, and Buddhas’ sons are at home. It is no trivial matter,
nor can it be cultivated by trivial persons. In proportion as continued attention is
given to it, it becomes more peaceful and more subtle. So strong mindfulness
and understanding are necessary here.
212.
Just as when doing needlework on a piece of fine cloth a fine needle is
needed, and a still finer instrument for boring the needle’s eye, so too, when
developing this meditation subject, which resembles fine cloth, both the
mindfulness, which is the counterpart of the needle, and the understanding
associated with it, which is the counterpart of the instrument for boring the
needle’s eye, need to be strong. A bhikkhu must have the necessary mindfulness
and understanding and must look for the in-breaths and out-breaths nowhere
else than the place normally touched by them.
213. Suppose a ploughman, after doing some ploughing, sent his oxen free to
graze and sat down to rest in the shade, then his oxen would soon go into the forest.
Now, a skilled ploughman who wants to catch them and yoke them again does not
wander through the forest following their tracks, but rather he takes his rope and
goad and goes straight to the drinking place where they meet, and he sits or lies
there. Then after the oxen have wandered about for a part of the day, they come to the
drinking place where they meet and they bathe and drink, and when he sees that
they have come out and are standing about, he secures them with the rope, and
prodding them with the goad, he brings them back, yokes them, and goes on with
his ploughing. So too, the bhikkhu should not look for the in-breaths and out-
breaths anywhere else than the place normally touched by them. And he should
take the rope of mindfulness and the goad of understanding, and fixing his mind
on the place normally touched by them, he should go on giving his attention to that.
[285] For as he gives his attention in this way they reappear after no long time, as the
oxen did at the drinking place where they met. So he can secure them with the rope
of mindfulness, and yoking them in that same place and prodding them with the
goad of understanding, he can keep on applying himself to the meditation subject.
214.
When he does so in this way, the sign59 soon appears to him. But it is not
the same for all; on the contrary, some say that when it appears it does so to
certain people producing a light touch like cotton or silk-cotton or a draught.
215.
But this is the exposition given in the commentaries: It appears to some
like a star or a cluster of gems or a cluster of pearls, to others with a rough touch
like that of silk-cotton seeds or a peg made of heartwood, to others like a long
braid string or a wreath of flowers or a puff of smoke, to others like a stretched-
59. “‘The sign’ is the learning sign and the counterpart sign, for both are stated here
together. Herein, the three similes beginning with cotton are properly the learning
sign, the rest are both. ‘Some’ are certain teachers. The similes beginning with the
‘cluster of gems’ are properly the counterpart sign” (Vism-mhṭ 273).
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out cobweb or a film of cloud or a lotus flower or a chariot wheel or the moon’s
disk or the sun’s disk.
216.
In fact this resembles an occasion when a number of bhikkhus are sitting
together reciting a suttanta. When a bhikkhu asks, “What does this sutta appear
like to you?” one says, “It appears to me like a great mountain torrent,” another
“To me it is like a line of forest trees,” another “To me it is like a spreading fruit
tree giving cool shade.” For the one sutta appears to them differently because of
the difference in their perception. Similarly this single meditation subject appears
differently because of difference in perception.60 It is born of perception, its source
is perception, it is produced by perception. Therefore it should be understood
that when it appears differently it is because of difference in perception.
217.
And here, the consciousness that has in-breath as its object is one, the
consciousness that has out-breath as its object is another, and the consciousness
that has the sign as its object is another. For the meditation subject reaches
neither absorption nor even access in one who has not got these three things
[clear]. But it reaches access and also absorption in one who has got these three
things [clear]. For this is said:
“Sign, in-breath, out-breath, are not object
Of a single consciousness;
By one who knows not these three things
Development is not obtained.
Sign, in-breath, out-breath, are not object
Of a single consciousness;
By one who does know these three things
Development can be obtained” (Paṭis I 170). [286]
218.
And when the sign has appeared in this way, the bhikkhu should go to
the teacher and tell him, “Venerable sir, such and such has appeared to me.” But
[say the Dīgha reciters] the teacher should say neither “This is the sign” nor
“This is not the sign”; after saying “It happens like this, friend,” he should tell
him, “Go on giving it attention again and again;” for if he were told “It is the
sign,” he might [become complacent and] stop short at that (see M I 193f.), and
if he were told “It is not the sign,” he might get discouraged and give up; so he
should encourage him to keep giving it his attention without saying either. So
the Dīgha reciters say, firstly. But the Majjhima reciters say that he should be
told, “This is the sign, friend. Well done. Keep giving attention to it again and
again.”
219.
Then he should fix his mind on that same sign; and so from now on, his
development proceeds by way of fixing. For the Ancients said this:
 “Fixing his mind upon the sign
And putting away61 extraneous aspects,
60. “‘Because of difference in perception’: because of the difference in the manner of
perceiving that occurred before the arising of the sign” (Vism-mhṭ 273).
61. Vibhāvayaṃ can mean “to do away with” or “to explain.” Either is applicable here
according to Vism-mhṭ 274.
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The clever man anchors his mind
Upon the breathings in and out.”
220.
So as soon as the sign appears, his hindrances are suppressed, his
defilements subside, his mindfulness is established, and his consciousness is
concentrated in access concentration.
221.
Then he should not give attention to the sign as to its colour, or review it
as to its [specific] characteristic. He should guard it as carefully as a king’s
chief queen guards the child in her womb due to become a Wheel-turning
Monarch,62 or as a farmer guards the ripening crops; and he should avoid the
seven unsuitable things beginning with the unsuitable abode and cultivate the
seven suitable things. Then, guarding it thus, he should make it grow and improve
with repeated attention, and he should practice the tenfold skill in absorption
(IV.42) and bring about evenness of energy (IV.66).
222.
As he strives thus, fourfold and fivefold jhāna is achieved by him on that
same sign in the same way as described under the earth kasiṇa.
5–8. (See §189) However, when a bhikkhu has achieved the fourfold and
fivefold jhāna and wants to reach purity by developing the meditation subject
through observing and through turning away, he should make that jhāna familiar
by attaining mastery in it in the five ways (IV.131), and then embark upon insight
by defining mentality-materiality. How?
223.
On emerging from the attainment, [287] he sees that the in-breaths and
out-breaths have the physical body and the mind as their origin; and that just as,
when a blacksmith’s bellows are being blown, the wind moves owing to the bag
and to the man’s appropriate effort, so too, in-breaths and out-breaths are due to
the body and the mind.
Next, he defines the in-breaths and out-breaths and the body as “materiality,”
and the consciousness and the states associated with the consciousness as “the
immaterial [mind].” This is in brief (cf. M-a I 249); but the details will be explained
later in the defining of mentality-materiality (XVIII.3f.).
224. Having defined mentality-materiality in this way, he seeks its condition.
With search he finds it, and so overcomes his doubts about the way of mentality-
materiality’s occurrence in the three divisions of time (Ch. XIX).
His doubts being overcome, he attributes the three characteristics [beginning
with that of suffering to mentality and materiality], comprehending [them] by
groups (XX.2f.); he abandons the ten imperfections of insight beginning with
illumination, which arise in the first stages of the contemplation of rise and fall
(XX.105f.), and he defines as “the path” the knowledge of the way that is free
from these imperfections (XX.126f.).
He reaches contemplation of dissolution by abandoning [attention to] arising.
When all formations have appeared as terror owing to the contemplation of their
incessant dissolution, he becomes dispassionate towards them (Ch. XXI), his
greed for them fades away, and he is liberated from them (Ch. XXII).
62. For the Wheel-turning Monarch (cakkavattin) see DN 26 and MN 129.
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After he has [thus] reached the four noble paths in due succession and has
become established in the fruition of Arahantship, he at last attains to the nineteen
kinds of reviewing knowledge (XXII.19f.), and he becomes fit to receive the
highest gifts from the world with its deities.
225.
At this point his development of concentration through mindfulness of
breathing, beginning with counting  and ending with looking back (§189) is
completed.
This is the commentary on the first tetrad in all aspects.
[Word Commentary Continued—Second Tetrad]
226.
Now, since there is no separate method for developing the meditation
subject in the case of the other tetrads, their meaning therefore needs only to be
understood according to the word commentary.
(v) He trains thus: “I shall breathe in … shall breathe out experiencing happiness,”
that is, making happiness known, making it plain. Herein, the happiness is
experienced in two ways: (a) with the object, and (b) with non-confusion.63
227.
(a) How is the happiness experienced with the object? He attains the two
jhānas in which happiness is present. At the time when he has actually entered
upon them the happiness is experienced with the object owing to the obtaining
of the jhāna, because of the experiencing of the object. (b) How with non-
confusion? When, after entering upon and emerging from one of the two jhānas
accompanied by happiness, [288] he comprehends with insight that happiness
associated with the jhāna as liable to destruction and to fall, then at the actual
time of the insight the happiness is experienced with non-confusion owing to
the penetration of its characteristics [of impermanence, and so on].
228.
For this is said in the Paṭisambhidā: “When he knows unification of mind
and non-distraction through long in-breaths, mindfulness is established in him.
By means of that mindfulness and that knowledge that happiness is experienced.
When he knows unification of mind and non-distraction through long out-
breaths … through short in-breaths … through short out-breaths … through in-
breaths … out-breaths experiencing the whole body … through in-breaths …
out-breaths tranquilizing the bodily formation, mindfulness is established in
63. “‘With the object’: under the heading of the object. The happiness included in the
jhāna that has that object is experienced ‘because of the experiencing of the object.’
What is meant? Just as, when a man who is looking for a snake discovers (experiences)
its abode, the snake is, as it were, already discovered (experienced) and caught, owing
to the ease with which he will then be able to catch it with charms and spells, so too,
when the object, which is the abode of the happiness, is experienced (discovered),
then the happiness itself is experienced (discovered) too, owing to the ease with which
it will be apprehended in its specific and general characteristics. ‘By his penetration of
its characteristics’: by penetration of the specific and general characteristics of
happiness. For when the specific and general characteristics of anything are
experienced then that thing is experienced according to reality” (Vism-mhṭ 276).
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him. By means of that mindfulness and that knowledge that happiness is
experienced.
“It is experienced by him when he adverts, when he knows, sees, reviews,
steadies his mind, resolves with faith, exerts energy, establishes mindfulness,
concentrates his mind, understands with understanding, directly knows what
is to be directly known, fully understands what is to be fully understood,
abandons what is to be abandoned, develops what is to be developed, realizes
what is to be realized. It is in this way that that happiness is experienced” (Paṭis
I 187).
229.
(vi–viii) The remaining [three] clauses should be understood in the same
way as to meaning; but there is this difference here. The experiencing of bliss must
be understood to be through three jhānas, and that of the mental formation through
four. The mental formation consists of the two aggregates of feeling and
perception. And in the case of the clause, experiencing bliss, it is said in the
Paṭisambhidā in order to show the plane of insight here [as well]: “‘Bliss’: there
are two kinds of bliss, bodily bliss and mental bliss” (Paṭis I 188). Tranquilizing
the mental formation: tranquilizing the gross mental formation; stopping it, is the
meaning. And this should be understood in detail in the same way as given
under the bodily formation (see §§176–85).
230.
Here, moreover, in the “happiness” clause feeling [which is actually being
contemplated in this tetrad] is stated under the heading of “happiness” [which
is a formation] but in the “bliss” clause feeling is stated in its own form. In the
two “mental-formation” clauses the feeling is that [necessarily] associated with
perception because of the words, “Perception and feeling belong to the mind,
these things being bound up with the mind are mental formations” (Paṭis I 188).
[289]
So this tetrad should be understood to deal with contemplation of feeling.
[Word Commentary Continued—Third Tetrad]
231.
(ix) In the third tetrad the experiencing of the [manner of] consciousness must
be understood to be through four jhānas.
(x)  Gladdening the [manner of]  consciousness: he trains thus: “Making the mind
glad, instilling gladness into it, cheering it, rejoicing it, I shall breathe in, shall
breathe out.” Herein, there is gladdening in two ways, through concentration
and through insight.
How through concentration? He attains the two jhānas in which happiness
is present. At the time when he has actually entered upon them he inspires the
mind with gladness, instils gladness into it, by means of the happiness associated
with the jhāna. How through insight? After entering upon and emerging from
one of the two jhānas accompanied by happiness, he comprehends with insight
that happiness associated with the jhāna as liable to destruction and to fall; thus
at the actual time of insight he inspires the mind with gladness, instils gladness
into it, by making the happiness associated with the jhāna the object. It is of one
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progressing in this way that the words, “He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in …
shall breathe out gladdening the [manner of] consciousness,’” are said.
232. (xi) Concentrating (samādahaṃ) the [manner of] consciousness: evenly (samaṃ)
placing (ādahanto) the mind, evenly putting it on its object by means of the first
jhāna and so on. Or alternatively, when, having entered upon those jhānas and
emerged from them, he comprehends with insight the consciousness associated
with the jhāna as liable to destruction and to fall, then at the actual time of
insight momentary unification of the mind64 arises through the penetration of
the characteristics [of impermanence, and so on]. Thus the words, “He trains
thus: ‘I shall breathe in … shall breathe out concentrating the [manner of]
consciousness,’” are said also of one who evenly places the mind, evenly puts it
on its object by means of the momentary unification of the mind arisen thus.
233. (xii) Liberating the [manner of] consciousness: he both breathes in and breathes
out delivering, liberating, the mind from the hindrances by means of the first
jhāna, from applied and sustained thought by means of the second, from
happiness by means of the third, from pleasure and pain by means of the fourth.
Or alternatively, when, having entered upon those jhānas and emerged from
them, he comprehends with insight the consciousness associated with the jhāna
as liable to destruction and to fall, then at the actual time of insight he delivers,
liberates, the mind from the perception of permanence by means of the
contemplation of impermanence, from the perception of pleasure by means of
the contemplation of pain, from the perception of self by means of the
contemplation of not self, from delight by means of the contemplation of
dispassion, from greed by means of the contemplation of fading away, from
arousing by means of the contemplation of cessation, from grasping by means
of the contemplation of relinquishment. Hence it is said: [290] “He trains thus: ‘I
shall breathe in … shall breathe out liberating the [manner of] consciousness.65
’” So this tetrad should be understood to deal with contemplation of mind.
64. “‘Momentary unification of the mind’: concentration lasting only for a moment.
For that too, when it occurs uninterruptedly on its object in a single mode and is not
overcome by opposition, fixes the mind immovably, as if in absorption” (Vism-mhṭ
278).
65.
“‘Delivering’: secluding, separating, by means of deliverance consisting in
suppression; abandoning the hindrances, is the meaning. ‘At the actual time of
insight’: at the time of contemplation of dissolution. For dissolution is the furthest
extreme of impermanence. So the meditator who is contemplating dissolution by
its means sees under the heading of consciousness the whole field of formations
as impermanent, not as permanent; and because of the suffering inherent in what
is impermanent, and because of the absence of self in what is painful, he sees that
same whole field of formations as painful, not as pleasant, and as not-self, not as
self. But since what is impermanent, painful, and not-self is not something to
delight in, and what is not something to delight in is not something to be greedy
for, consequently he becomes dispassionate towards that whole field of formations
when it is seen in the light of dissolution as impermanent, painful, not-self, he
does not delight in it, and his greed for it fades away, does not dye him. Now, as he
thus becomes dispassionate and his greed fades away, it is firstly by means of
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[Word Commentary Continued—Fourth Tetrad]
234.
(xiii) But in the fourth tetrad, as to contemplating impermanence, here firstly,
the impermanent should be understood, and impermanence, and the
contemplation of impermanence, and one contemplating impermanence.
Herein, the five aggregates are the impermanent. Why? Because their essence
is rise and fall and change. Impermanence is the rise and fall and change in those
same aggregates, or it is their non-existence after having been; the meaning is, it
is the breakup of produced aggregates through their momentary dissolution
since they do not remain in the same mode. Contemplation of impermanence is
contemplation of materiality, etc., as “impermanent” in virtue of that
impermanence.  One contemplating impermanence possesses that contemplation.
So it is when one such as this is breathing in and breathing out that it can be
understood of him: “He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in … shall breathe out
contemplating impermanence.’”66
mundane knowledge only that he causes greed to cease and does not arouse it. The
meaning is that he does not bring about its arising. Or alternatively, his greed having
thus faded away, he causes by means of his own knowledge the cessation of the
unseen field of formations just as that of the seen, he does not arouse it; the meaning
is that he brings about only its cessation, he does not bring about its arising. Having
entered on this way, he relinquishes, he does not grasp. What is meant? It is that this
contemplation of impermanence, etc., is called relinquishment as giving up and
relinquishment as entering into because it gives up defilements along with aggregate-
producing kamma-formations and because, by seeing the flaws in what is formed and
by inclining towards the opposite of what is formed, namely Nibbāna, it enters into
that Nibbāna. Consequently the meditator who has that contemplation gives up
defilements and enters into Nibbāna in the way stated. Herein, the contemplation of
what is impermanent as only impermanent is ‘contemplation of impermanence’; this
is a name for insight that occurs by taking formations of the three [mundane] planes
[and leaving aside the supramundane] as impermanent. ‘From the perception of
permanence’: from the wrong perception that occurs perceiving formed things as
permanent, eternal; also the various views should be regarded as included under the
heading of perception. Likewise with the perception of pleasure and so on. ‘By means
of the contemplation of dispassion’: by means of the contemplation that occurs in the
mode of dispassion for formations. ‘From delight’: from craving accompanied by
happiness. ‘By means of the contemplation of fading away’: by means of the
contemplation that occurs similarly in the mode of fading away; hence ‘delivering
from greed’ is said. ‘By means of the contemplation of cessation’: by means of the
successive seeing of formations’ cessation. Or contemplating cessation is contemplation
such that formations cease only and do not arise with future renewal. For this is
knowledge of desire for deliverance grown strong. Hence he said, ‘delivering from
arousing.’ Contemplation that occurs in the mode of relinquishing is ‘contemplation
of relinquishment.’ ‘From grasping’: from taking as permanent, etc.; or the meaning
can also here be regarded as ‘from grasping rebirth-linking.’ (Vism-mhṭ 279) See
Chapters XX and XXI.
66. “What is called ‘permanent’ is what is lasting, eternal, like Nibbāna. What is
called ‘impermanent’ is what is not permanent, and is possessed of rise and fall. He
said ‘The five aggregates are “the impermanent,’” signifying that they are formed
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235. (xiv) Contemplating fading away: there are two kinds of fading away, that is,
fading away as destruction, and absolute fading away.67 Herein, “fading away
as destruction” is the momentary dissolution of formations. “Absolute fading
away” is Nibbāna. Contemplation of fading away is insight and it is the path,
which occurs as the seeing of these two. It is when he possesses this twofold
contemplation that it can be understood of him: “He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe
in … shall breathe out contemplating fading away.’”
(xv) The same method of explanation applies to the clause, contemplating
cessation.
236. (xvi) Contemplating relinquishment: relinquishment is of two kinds too, that
is to say, relinquishment as giving up, and relinquishment as entering into.
Relinquishment itself as [a way of] contemplation is “contemplation of
relinquishment.” For insight is called both “relinquishment as giving up” and
“relinquishment as entering into” since [firstly], through substitution of opposite
qualities, it gives up defilements with their aggregate-producing kamma
formations, and [secondly], through seeing the wretchedness of what is formed,
it also enters into Nibbāna by inclining towards Nibbāna, which is the opposite
of the formed (XI.18). Also the path is called both “relinquishment as giving up”
and “relinquishment as entering into” since it gives up defilements with their
aggregate-producing kamma-formations by cutting them off, and it enters into
Nibbāna by making it its object. Also both [insight and path knowledge] are
called contemplation (anupassanā) because of their re-seeing successively (anu
anu passanā) each preceding kind of knowledge.68 [291] It is when he possesses
dhammas as to meaning. Why? ‘Because their essence is rise and fall and change’: the
meaning is that their individual essences have rise and fall and change. Herein, formed
dhammas’ arising owing to cause and condition, their coming to be after non-existence,
their acquisition of an individual self (attalābha), is ‘rise.’ Their momentary cessation
when arisen is ‘fall.’
67. “‘Destruction’ is the vanishing of formations; it is the act of those formations’
fading away, their disintegration, that is ‘fading away.’ Destruction itself as fading away
is ‘fading away as destruction’; this is momentary cessation. Formations fade away
absolutely here when this has been reached, thus it is ‘absolute fading away;’ this is
Nibbāna” (Vism-mhṭ 280).
68. “The act of relinquishing as the act of giving up by means of substituting for
what should be abandoned its opposite quality or by cutting it off, is ‘relinquishment
as giving up.’ Likewise the act of relinquishing of self that takes place in non-formation
of kamma, which is the relinquishing of all substrata (circumstances) of becoming,
being the entering into that [Nibbāna] either by inclination towards it [in insight] or by
having it as object [in the path] is ‘relinquishment as entering into.’ ‘Through
substitution of opposite qualities’: here contemplation of impermanence, firstly, gives
up perception of permanence by abandoning through substitution of the opposite
[e.g. substituting perception of impermanence for that of permanence in the case of all
formed things]. And the giving up in this way is in the form of inducing non-occurrence.
For all kamma-formations that are rooted in defilements due to apprehending
(formations) as permanent, and the kamma-resultant aggregates rooted in both which
might arise in the future, are abandoned by causing their non-occurrence. Likewise in
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this twofold contemplation that it can be understood of him: “He trains thus: ‘I
shall breathe in … shall breathe out contemplating relinquishment.’”
237.
This tetrad deals only with pure insight while the previous three deal
with serenity and insight. This is how the development of mindfulness of
breathing with its sixteen bases in four tetrads should be understood.
[Conclusion]
This mindfulness of breathing with its sixteen bases thus is of great fruit, of
great benefit.
238.
Its great beneficialness should be understood here as peacefulness both
because of the words, “And, bhikkhus, this concentration through mindfulness
of breathing, when developed and much practiced, is both peaceful and sublime”
(S V 321), etc., and because of its ability to cut off applied thoughts; for it is
because it is peaceful, sublime, and an unadulterated blissful abiding that it cuts
off the mind’s running hither and thither with applied thoughts obstructive to
concentration, and keeps the mind only on the breaths as object. Hence it is said:
“Mindfulness of breathing should be developed in order to cut off applied
thoughts” (A IV 353).
239.
Also its great beneficialness should be understood as the root condition
for the perfecting of clear vision and deliverance; for this has been said by the
Blessed One: “Bhikkhus, mindfulness of breathing, when developed and much
practiced, perfects the four foundations of mindfulness. The four foundations of
mindfulness, when developed and much practiced, perfect the seven
enlightenment factors. The seven enlightenment factors, when developed and
much practiced, perfect clear vision and deliverance” (M III 82).
240.
Again its great beneficialness should be understood to reside in the fact
that it causes the final in-breaths and out-breaths to be known; for this is said by
the Blessed One: “Rāhula, when mindfulness of breathing is thus developed,
thus practiced much, the final in-breaths and out-breaths, too, are known as they
cease, not unknown” (M I 425f.).
241.
Herein, there are three kinds of [breaths that are] final because of cessation,
that is to say, final in becoming, final in jhāna, and final in death. For, among the
various kinds of becoming (existence), in-breaths and out-breaths occur in the
sensual-sphere becoming, not in the fine-material and immaterial kinds of
becoming. That is why there are final ones in becoming. In the jhānas they occur
 the case of perception of pain, and so on. ‘Through seeing the wretchedness of what
is formed’: through seeing the fault of impermanence, etc., in the formed three-plane
field of formations. It is ‘the opposite of the formed’ owing to its permanence, and so
on. When defilements are given up by the path, then kamma-formations are called
‘given up’ through producing (āpādana) in them the nature of not causing result, and
aggregates rooted in them are called ‘given up’ through their being rendered fit for
non-arising. So the path gives up all these, is what is meant” (Vism-mhṭ 281). The
word pakkhandana (rendered by “entering into”) is used to define the act of faith, and
can also be rendered by “launching out into” or by “leap.”
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in the first three but not in the fourth. That is why there are final ones in jhāna.
Those that arise along with the sixteenth consciousness preceding the death
consciousness [292] cease together with the death consciousness. They are called
“final in death.” It is these last that are meant here by “final.”
242.
When a bhikkhu has devoted himself to this meditation subject, it seems,
if he adverts, at the moment of arising of the sixteenth consciousness before the
death consciousness, to their arising, then their arising is evident to him; if he
adverts to their presence, then their presence is evident to him; if he adverts to
their dissolution, then their dissolution is evident to him; and it is so because he
has thoroughly discerned in-breaths and out-breaths as object.
243.
When a bhikkhu has attained Arahantship by developing some other
meditation subject than this one, he may be able to define his life term or not. But
when he has reached Arahantship by developing this mindfulness of breathing
with its sixteen bases, he can always define his life term. He knows, “My vital
formations will continue now for so long and no more.” Automatically he performs
all the functions of attending to the body, dressing and robing, etc., after which
he closes his eyes, like the Elder Tissa who lived at the Koṭapabbata Monastery,
like the Elder Mahā Tissa who lived at the Mahā Karañjiya Monastery, like the
Elder Tissa the alms-food eater in the kingdom of Devaputta, like the elders who
were brothers and lived at the Cittalapabbata monastery.
244.
Here is one story as an illustration. After reciting the Pātimokkha, it seems,
on the Uposatha day of the full moon, one of the two elders who were brothers
went to his own dwelling place surrounded by the Community of Bhikkhus. As
he stood on the walk looking at the moonlight he calculated his own vital
formations, and he said to the Community of Bhikkhus, “In what way have you
seen bhikkhus attaining Nibbāna up till now?” Some answered, “Till now we
have seen them attain Nibbāna sitting in their seats.” Others answered, “We
have seen them sitting cross-legged in the air.” The elder said, “I shall now
show you one attaining Nibbāna while walking.” He then drew a line on the
walk, saying, “I shall go from this end of the walk to the other end and return;
when I reach this line I shall attain Nibbāna.” So saying, he stepped on to the
walk and went to the far end. On his return he attained Nibbāna in the same
moment in which he stepped on the line. [293]
So let a man, if he is wise,
Untiringly devote his days
To mindfulness of breathing, which
Rewards him always in these ways.
This is the section dealing with mindfulness of breathing in the detailed
explanation.
[(10) RECOLLECTION  OF  PEACE]
245.
One who wants to develop the recollection of peace mentioned next to
mindfulness of breathing (III.105) should go into solitary retreat and recollect
the special qualities of Nibbāna, in other words, the stilling of all suffering, as
follows:
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“Bhikkhus, in so far as there are dhammas, whether formed or unformed,
fading away is pronounced the best of them, that is to say, the disillusionment of
vanity, the elimination of thirst, the abolition of reliance, the termination of the
round, the destruction of craving, fading away, cessation, Nibbāna” (A II 34).
246.
Herein in so far as means as many as. Dhammas  [means] individual
essences.69  Whether formed or unformed: whether made by conditions going
69. “In such passages as ‘Dhammas that are concepts’ (Dhs p. 1, §1308) even a non-
entity (abhāva) is thus called a ‘dhamma’ since it is borne (dhārīyati) and affirmed
(avadhārīyati) by knowledge. That kind of dhamma is excluded by his saying, ‘Dhammas
[means] individual essences.’ The act of becoming (bhavana), which constitutes existing-
ness (vijjamānatā) in the ultimate sense, is essence (bhāva); it is with essence (saha
bhāvena), thus it is an individual essence (sabhāva); the meaning is that it is possible
(labbhamānarūpa) in the true sense, in the ultimate sense. For these are called ‘dhammas
(bearers)’ because they bear (dhāraṇa) their own individual essences (sabhāva), and
they are called ‘individual essences’ in the sense already explained” (Vism-mhṭ 282;
cf. Ch. VII, n. 1).
In the Piṭakas the word sabhāva seems to appear only once (Paṭis II 178). It next
appears in the Netti (p.79), the Milindapañhā (pp. 90, 164, 212, 360). It is extensively
used for exegetical purposes in the Visuddhimagga and main commentaries and likewise
in the subcommentaries. As has just been shown, it is narrower than dhamma (see
also Ch. XXIII. n. 18). It often roughly corresponds to dhātu (element—see e.g. Dhs-a
263) and to lakkhaṇa (characteristic—see below), but less nearly to the vaguer and (in
Pali) untechnical pakati (nature), or to rasa (function—see I.21). The Atthasālinī observes:
“It is the individual essence, or the generality, of such and such dhammas that is called
their characteristic” (Dhs-a 63); on which the Mūla Þīkā comments: “The individual
essence consisting in, say, hardness as that of earth, or touching as that of contact, is
not common to all dhammas. The generality is the individual essence common to all
consisting in impermanence, etc.; also in this context (i.e. Dhs §1) the characteristic of
being profitable may be regarded as general because it is the individual essence
common to all that is profitable; or alternatively it is their individual essence because it
is not common to the unprofitable and indeterminate [kinds of consciousness]” (Dhs-
a 63). The individual essence of any formed dhamma is manifested in the three instants
of its existence (atthitā, vijjamānatā), namely, arising, presence (= aging) and dissolution.
It comes from nowhere and goes nowhere (XV.15) and is borne by the mind. Dhammas
without individual essence (asabhāvadhamma) include the attainment of cessation (see
Ch. XXIII, n. 18) and some concepts. Space and time belong to the last-mentioned. Of
space (ākāsa) the Majjhima Nikāya Þīkā says: “Space, which is quite devoid of individual
essence, is called empty” (commenting on MN 106), while of time (kāla) the Mūla Þīkā
says: “Though time is determined by the kind of consciousness [e.g. as specified in
the first paragraph of the Dhammasaṅgaṇī] and is non-existent (avijjamāna) as to
individual essence, yet as the non-entity (abhāva) before and after the moment in
which those [conascent and co-present] dhammas occur, it is called the ‘container
(adhikaraṇa)’; it is perceived (symbolized) only as the state of a receptacle (ādhāra-bhāva)
(Dhs-a 62). Of Nibbāna (for which see XVI.46ff.), which has its own individual essence, the
Mūla Þīkā says “Nibbāna is not like other dhammas; because of its extreme profundity it
cannot be made an object of consciousness (ālambituṃ) by one who has not realized it.
That is why it has to be realized by change-of-lineage. It has profundity surpassing any
individual essence belonging to the three periods of time” (Vibh-a 38).
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together, coming together, or not so made.70 Fading away is pronounced the best of
them: of these formed and unformed dhammas, fading away is pronounced the
best, is called the foremost, the highest.
247.
Herein  fading away is not mere absence of greed, but rather it is that
unformed dhamma which, while given the names “disillusionment of vanity,”
etc., in the clause, “that is to say, the disillusionment of vanity, … Nibbāna,” is
treated basically as fading away.71 It is called disillusionment of vanity because on
coming to it all kinds of vanity (intoxication), such as the vanity of conceit, and
vanity of manhood, are disillusioned, undone, done away with.72 And it is called
elimination of thirst because on coming to it all thirst for sense desires is eliminated
and quenched. But it is called abolition of reliance because on coming to its
reliance on the five cords of sense desire is abolished. It is called termination of the
round  because on coming to it the round of the three planes [of existence] is
terminated. It is called destruction of craving because on coming to it craving is
Sabhāva has not the extreme vagueness of its parent bhāva, which can mean anything
between “essence” (see e.g. Dhs-a 61) and “-ness” (e.g. natthibhāva = non-existingness—
X.35). This may be remembered when sabhāva is defined as above thus: “It is with
essence (sahabhāvena), thus it is individual essence (sabhāva)” (Vism-mhṭ 282), and
when it is defined again thus: “A dhamma’s own essence or its existing essence (sako
vā bhāvo samāno vā bhāvo) is its individual essence (sabhāva)” (Vism-mhṭ 433). Sabhāva
can also be the basis of a wrong view, if regarded as the sole efficient cause or
condition of any formed thing (Ch. XVI, n.23). The Sanskrit equivalent, svabhāva, had
a great vogue and checkered history in philosophical discussions on the Indian
mainland.
This (unlike the word, dhamma, which has many “referents”) is an instance in which
it is of first importance to stick to one rendering. The word is a purely exegetical one;
consequently vagueness is undesirable. “Individual essence” has been chosen
principally on etymological grounds, and the word “essence” (an admittedly slippery
customer) must be understood from the contexts in which it is used and not prejudged.
Strictly it refers here to the triple moment of arising etc., of formed dhammas that can
have such “existence” in their own right and be experienced as such; and it refers to
the realizability of Nibbāna. We are here in the somewhat magical territory of ontology,
a subject that is at present undergoing one of its periodical upheavals in Europe, this
time in the hands of the existentialists. Consequently it is important to approach the
subject with an open mind.
70.
“‘Made’ is generated. ‘Not so made’ is not made by any conditions at all.”
(Vism-mhṭ 281)
71. “That dhamma possessing individual essence and having the characteristic of
being not formed is to be treated basically as ‘fading away,’ since it is there that the
dhamma of defilement fades away” (Vism-mhṭ 282).
72. “When they are being abandoned by the noble path, which occurs by making
Nibbāna its object, it is said that they are abandoned by reaching that [Nibbāna] which
is why he said, ‘Because on coming to it,’ and so on. Herein, ‘vanity of conceit (māna-
mada)’ is conceit (māna) that occurs as conceiving (maññanā) ‘I am superior’ (Vibh 353).
‘Vanity of manhood’ is vanity about being of the male sex. The words ‘such as’ refer
to vanity of birth, and so on (Vibh 345)” (Vism-mhṭ 282).
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entirely destroyed, fades away and ceases. It is called Nibbāna (extinction) because
it has gone away from (nikkhanta), has escaped from (nissaṭa), is dissociated from
craving, which has acquired in common usage the name “fastening” (vāna)
because, by ensuring successive becoming, craving serves as a joining together,
a binding together, a lacing together, of the four kinds of generation, five destinies,
seven stations of consciousness and nine abodes of beings.73 [294]
248.
This is how peace, in other words, Nibbāna, should be recollected
according to its special qualities beginning with disillusionment of vanity. But
it should also be recollected according to the other special qualities of peace
stated by the Blessed One in the suttas beginning with: “Bhikkhus, I shall teach
you the unformed … the truth … the other shore … the hard-to-see … the
undecaying … the lasting … the undiversified … the deathless … the auspicious
… the safe … the marvellous … the intact … the unafflicted … the purity … the
island … the shelter ….” (S IV 360–72).74
249.
As he recollects peace in its special qualities of disillusionment of vanity,
etc., in this way, then: “On that occasion his mind is not obsessed by greed or
obsessed by hate or obsessed by delusion; his mind has rectitude on that occasion,
being inspired by peace” (see VII.65, etc.). So when he has suppressed the
hindrances in the way already described under the recollection of the
Enlightened One, etc., the jhāna factors arise in a single moment. But owing to
the profundity of the special qualities of peace, or owing to his being occupied
in recollecting special qualities of various kinds, the jhāna is only access and
does not reach absorption. And that jhāna itself is known as “recollection of
peace” too because it arises by means of the special qualities of peace.
250.
And as in the case of the six recollections, this also comes to success only
in a noble disciple. Still, though this is so, it can nevertheless also be brought to
mind by an ordinary person who values peace. For even by hearsay the mind
has confidence in peace.
251.
A bhikkhu who is devoted to this recollection of peace sleeps in bliss and
wakes in bliss, his faculties are peaceful, his mind is peaceful, he has conscience
and shame, he is confident, he is resolved [to attain] the superior [state], he is
respected and honoured by his fellows in the life of purity. And even if he
penetrates no higher, he is at least headed for a happy destiny.
73. Modern etymology derives the word Nibbāna (Skr. nirvāṇa) from the negative
prefix  nir plus the root vā (to blow). The original literal meaning was probably
“extinction” of a fire by ceasing to blow on it with bellows (a smith’s fire for example).
It seems to have been extended to extinction of fire by any means, for example, the
going out of a lamp’s flame (nibbāyati—M III 245). By analogy it was extended to the
extinction of the five-aggregate process on the Arahant’s death (see It 38). Nibbāna is
not the “extinction of a self or of a living lasting being,” such a mistaken opinion being
the annihilation view (see e.g. M I 140, S III 109).
74.
Some texts add leṇa (another word for shelter). Still others are given in the
Saṃyutta text.
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So that is why a man of wit
Untiringly devotes his days
To mind the noble peace, which can
Reward him in so many ways.
This is the section dealing with the recollection of peace in the detailed
explanation.
The eighth chapter called “The Description of
Recollections as Meditation Subjects” in the Treatise
on the Development of Concentration in the Path of
Purification composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.